Cryobiology

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Cryobiology

Cryobiology is the branch of biology

Biology

Biology is a branch of the natural sciences concerned with the study of living organisms and their interaction with each other and their environment ....
that studies the effects of low temperature

Temperature

In physics, temperature is a physical property of a Physical system that underlies the common notions of hot and cold; something that feels hotter generally has the greater temperature....
s on living things. The word cryobiology is derived from the Greek words "cryo" = cold, "bios" = life, and "logos" = science. It means the science of life at low temperature. In practice, cryobiology is the study of biological material or systems at temperatures below normal. Materials or systems studied may include protein

Protein

Proteins are organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of adjacent amino acid Residue ....
s, cells

Cell (biology)

The cell is the structural and functional unit of all known Life organisms. It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living, and is often called the building bricks of life....
, tissues, organs, or whole organisms. Temperatures may range from moderately hypothermic

Hypothermia

Hypothermia is a condition in which an organism's temperature drops below that required for normal metabolism and bodily functions. In warm-blooded animals, core body temperature is maintained near a constant level through biologic homeostasis....
conditions to cryogenic temperatures.

lass="link1" onMouseover='showByLink("m996153",this)' onMouseout='hide("m996153")'href="http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Cryobiology">Cryobiology

Cryobiology

Cryobiology is the branch of biology that studies the effects of low temperatures on living things. The word cryobiology is derived from the Greek words "cryo" = cold, "bios" = life, and "logos" = science....
: is the study of life

Life

Life is a characteristic of organisms that exhibit certain biological processes such as chemical reactions or other events that results in a transformation....
at low temperature

Temperature

Cryogenics

In physics, cryogenics is the study of the production of very low temperature and the behavior of materials at those temperatures. Rather than the familiar temperature scales of Fahrenheit and Celsius, cryogenicists use the Kelvin scales....
: is the branch of physics

Physics

Physics is the natural science which examines basic concepts such as energy, force, and spacetime and all that derives from these, such as mass, charge, matter and its Motion ....
and engineering

Engineering

Engineering is the discipline and profession of applying Technology and science knowledge and utilizing natural laws and physical resources in order to design and implement materials, structures, machines, devices, systems, and process that safely realize a desired objective and meet specified criteria....
that studies the production and use of very low temperature

Temperature

In physics, temperature is a physical property of a Physical system that underlies the common notions of hot and cold; something that feels hotter generally has the greater temperature....
s.

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Encyclopedia

Cryobiology is the branch of biology

Biology

Temperature

Protein

Cell (biology)

Hypothermia

Definitions/Distinctions

Cryobiology

Life

Life is a characteristic of organisms that exhibit certain biological processes such as chemical reactions or other events that results in a transformation....
at low temperature

Temperature

Cryogenics

Physics

Physics is the natural science which examines basic concepts such as energy, force, and spacetime and all that derives from these, such as mass, charge, matter and its Motion ....
and engineering

Engineering

Temperature

Cryonics

Cryonics is the low-temperature Preserve of humans and animals that can no longer be sustained by contemporary medicine until resuscitation may be possible in the future....
: is the low temperature preservation of humans and animals in a damaged state with the intention of future revival. Cryonics is not part of mainstream cryobiology because cryonics still depends heavily on speculative future technology.

Major areas of study in cryobiology

At least 6 major areas of study in cryobiology can be identified:

Study of cold-adaptation of microorganism
Microorganism

A microorganism or microbe is an organism that is microscopic . The study of microorganisms is called microbiology, a subject that began with Anton van Leeuwenhoek's discovery of microorganisms in 1675, using a microscope of his own design....
s, plant
Plant

Plants are Life organisms belonging to the Kingdom Plantae. They include familiar organisms such as trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae....
s (= cold hardiness), invertebrate
Invertebrate

An invertebrate is an animal lacking a vertebral column. The group includes 98% of all animal species ? all animals except those in the Chordate subphylum vertebrate ....
s, and animal
Animal

Animals are a major group of multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the Kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. Their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on in their life....
s (= hibernation
Hibernation

Hibernation is a state of inactivity and Metabolism depression in animals, characterized by lower body temperature, slower breathing, and lower metabolic rate....
).
Cryopreservation of cells, tissues, gamete
Gamete

A gamete is a Cell that fuses with another gamete during fertilization in organisms that sexual reproduction. In species which produce two morphologically distinct types of gametes, and in which each individual produces only one type, a female is any individual which produces the larger type of gamete?called an ovum ?and a male produces th...
s, and embryo
Embryo

An embryo is a multicellular organism ploidy eukaryote in its earliest stage of development, from the time of first cell division until birth, Egg , or germination....
s of animal and human origin for (medical) purposes of long-term storage. This usually requires the addition of substances which protect the cells during freezing and thawing (cryoprotectant
Cryoprotectant

A cryoprotectant is a substance that is used to protect biological tissue from freezing damage . Arctic and Antarctic insects, fish, amphibians and reptiles create cryoprotectants in their bodies to minimize freezing damage during cold winter periods....
s).
Preservation of organs under hypothermic conditions for transplantation.
Lyophilization (freeze-drying
Freeze drying

Freeze-drying is a dehydration process typically used to Food preservation a perishable material or make the material more convenient for transport....
) of pharmaceuticals.
Cryosurgery
Cryosurgery

Cryosurgery is the application of extreme cold to destroy abnormal or diseased tissue. The term comes from the Greek words cryo and surgery meaning "hand work" or "handiwork"....
, a (minimally) invasive approach for the destruction of unhealthy tissue using cryogenic gases/fluids.
Physics of supercooling
Supercooling

Supercooling is the process of lowering the temperature of a liquid or a gas below its melting point, without it becoming a solid.A liquid below its standard freezing point will crystallization process in the presence of a nucleation around which a crystal structure can form....
, ice
Ice

Ice is a solid phases of matter, usually crystalline solid, of a non-metallic substance that is liquid or gas at room temperature, such as ammonia ice or methane ice....
nucleation
Nucleation

Nucleation is the onset of a crystal in a small region. The phase transition can be the formation of a bubble or of a crystal from a liquid. Creation of liquid droplets in saturated vapor or the creation of gaseous bubbles in a saturated liquid is also characterized by nucleation ....
/growth and mechanical engineering aspects of heat transfer
Heat transfer

Heat transfer is the transition of thermal energy or simply heat from a hotter object to a cooler object . When an object or fluid is at a different temperature than its thermodynamic system or another object, transfer of thermal energy, also known as heat transfer, or heat exchange, occurs in such a way that the body and the surround...
during cooling and warming.

Historical background

Cryobiology history can be traced back to antiquity. As early as in 2500 BC low temperatures were used in Egypt in medicine. The use of cold was recommended by Hippocrates

Hippocrates

Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos - ancient Greek: ; Hippokr?tes was an Ancient Greece physician of the Age of Pericles, and was considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine....
to stop bleeding and swelling. With the emergence of modern science

Science

In its broadest sense, science refers to any systematic knowledge or practice. In its more usual restricted sense, science refers to a system of acquiring knowledge based on scientific method, as well as to the organized body of knowledge gained through such research....
, Robert Boyle

Robert Boyle

Robert Boyle was an Irish People theologian, natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, inventor, and early gentleman scientist, noted for his work in physics and chemistry....
studied the effects of low temperatures on animals.

In 1949 sperm

Spermatozoon

A sperm, from the ancient Greek word sp???a and and more commonly known as a sperm cell, is the ploidy cell that is the male gamete. It Fertilization an ovum to form a zygote....
was cryopreserved

Cryopreservation

Cryopreservation is a process where cell or whole Biological tissue are preserved by cooling to low sub-zero temperatures, such as 77 K or -196 ?C ....
for the first time by a team of scientists led by Christopher Polge (1926-2006). This led to a much wider use of cryopreservation

Cryopreservation

Cryopreservation is a process where cell or whole Biological tissue are preserved by cooling to low sub-zero temperatures, such as 77 K or -196 ?C ....
today, with many organs

Organ (anatomy)

In biology, an organ is a biological tissue that performs a specific function or group of functions. Usually there is a main tissue and sporadic tissues....
, tissues

Biological tissue

Tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism. Hence, a tissue is an ensemble of cells, not necessarily identical, but from the same origin, that together carry out a specific function....
and cell

Cell (biology)

Temperature

Heart

The heart is a muscle organ in all vertebrates responsible for pumping blood through the blood vessels by repeated, rhythmic contractions, or a similar structure in annelids, mollusks, and arthropods....
s are usually stored and transported, for short times only, at cool but not freezing temperatures for transplantation

Organ transplant

Organ transplant is the moving of an organ from one body to another , for the purpose of replacing the recipient's damaged or failing organ with a working one from the donor site....
. Cell suspensions (like blood

Blood

Blood is a specialized bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's Cell s ? such as nutrients and oxygen ? and transports waste products away from those same cells....
and semen

Semen

Semen is an organic fluid, also known as seminal fluid, that usually contains spermatozoon....
) and thin tissue sections can sometimes be stored almost indefinitely at liquid nitrogen

Liquid nitrogen

Liquid nitrogen is a liquefied atmospheric gas produced industrially in large quantities by fractional distillation of liquid air. It is pure nitrogen in a liquid state at very low temperature....
temperature (cryopreservation

Cryopreservation

Cryopreservation is a process where cell or whole Biological tissue are preserved by cooling to low sub-zero temperatures, such as 77 K or -196 ?C ....
). Human sperm, eggs and embryo

Embryo

An embryo is a multicellular organism ploidy eukaryote in its earliest stage of development, from the time of first cell division until birth, Egg , or germination....
s are routinely stored in fertility

Fertility

Fertility is the natural capability of giving life. As a measure, "fertility rate" is the number of children born per couple, person or population....
research and treatments. In the early 2000s a baby was born from a cryopreserved egg fertilized by a cryopreserved sperm.

Cryosurgery

Cryosurgery

Cryosurgery is the application of extreme cold to destroy abnormal or diseased tissue. The term comes from the Greek words cryo and surgery meaning "hand work" or "handiwork"....
(intended and controlled tissue destruction by ice formation) was carried out by James Arnott in 1845 in an operation on a patient with cancer

Cancer

Cancer is a class of diseases in which a group of cell display uncontrolled growth , invasion , and sometimes metastasis . These three malignant properties of cancers differentiate them from benign tumors, which are self-limited, do not invade or metastasize....
. Although not very widespread, cryosurgery has its benefits. Hypothermia

Hypothermia

Hypothermia is a condition in which an organism's temperature drops below that required for normal metabolism and bodily functions. In warm-blooded animals, core body temperature is maintained near a constant level through biologic homeostasis....
, e.g. during heart surgery on a "cold" heart (generated by cold perfusion without any ice formation) allows for much longer operations and improves recovery rates for patients.

Cryobiology in Humans

Cryobiology in humans with regards to infertility is also called vitrification which is a process in which a woman’s eggs are flash frozen in a matter of seconds. Freezing the eggs at such a rapid rate greatly improves their survival rate and prevents ice crystals from forming in the egg that could damage the DNA. Once the couple is ready to conceive the eggs are thawed and through the process of IVF sperm is placed with the eggs and together they are placed back into the uterus. Vitrification has its glitches and is not as reliable as freezing fertilized eggs or embryos because eggs alone are extremely sensitive to temperature. Many researchers are also freezing ovarian tissue in conjunction with the eggs in hopes that the ovarian tissue can be transplanted back into the uterus, stimulating normal ovulation cycles.

Applied cryobiology

Cryobiology as an applied science

Applied science

Applied science is the application of knowledge from one or more natural science fields to solve practical problems. Fields of engineering are closely related to applied sciences....
is primarily concerned with low temperature preservation. Hypothermic

Hypothermia

Hypothermia is a condition in which an organism's temperature drops below that required for normal metabolism and bodily functions. In warm-blooded animals, core body temperature is maintained near a constant level through biologic homeostasis....
storage is typically above 0°C but below normothermic (32°C to 37°C) mammalian temperatures. Storage by cryopreservation

Cryopreservation

Cryopreservation is a process where cell or whole Biological tissue are preserved by cooling to low sub-zero temperatures, such as 77 K or -196 ?C ....
, on the other hand, will be in the −80°C to −196°C temperature range. Organ

Organ (anatomy)

In biology, an organ is a biological tissue that performs a specific function or group of functions. Usually there is a main tissue and sporadic tissues....
s, and tissues are more frequently the objects of hypothermic storage, whereas single cells have been the most common objects cryopreserved.

A rule of thumb in hypothermic storage is that every 10°C reduction in temperature is accompanied by a 50% decrease in oxygen consumption

Aerobic exercise

Aerobic exercise refers to exercise that involves or improves oxygen consumption by the body. Aerobic means "with oxygen", and refers to the use of oxygen in the body's metabolic or Adenosine triphosphate-generating process....
. Although hibernating animals

Hibernation

Hibernation is a state of inactivity and Metabolism depression in animals, characterized by lower body temperature, slower breathing, and lower metabolic rate....
have adapted mechanisms to avoid metabolic imbalance

Metabolism

Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that occur in living organisms in order to maintain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments....
s associated with hypothermia, hypothermic organs and tissues being maintained for transplantation

Organ transplant

Acidosis

Acidosis is an increased acidity . If not further qualified, it usually refers to acidity of the blood plasma.Acidosis is said to occur when arterial pH falls below 7.35, while its counterpart occurs at a pH over 7.45....
, depressed sodium pump

Na+/K+-ATPase

Na+/K+-ATPase is an enzyme located in the plasma membrane . It is found in the human cell and is found in all metazoa ....
activity and increased intracellular calcium

Calcium

Calcium is the chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. It has an atomic mass of 40.078 amu. Calcium is a soft grey alkaline earth metal, and is the fifth most abundant element by mass in the earth's Crust ....
. Special organ preservation solutions such as Viaspan

Viaspan

Viaspan, also known as University of Wisconsin solution , was the first solution thoughtfully designed for use in organ transplantation, and became the first intracellular-like preservation medium....
(University of Wisconsin solution), HTK

Histidine-tryptophan-ketoglutarate

Histidine-tryptophan-ketoglutarate, or Custodiol HTK solution is a high-flow, low-potassium preservation solution used for organ transplantation....
, and Celsior have been designed for this purpose. These solutions also contain ingredients to minimize damage by free radicals

Radical (chemistry)

In chemistry, radicals are atoms, molecules or ions with unpaired electrons on an otherwise open shell configuration. These unpaired electrons are usually highly chemical reaction, so radicals are likely to take part in chemical reactions....
, prevent edema

Edema

File:Oedema.jpgEdema or Oedema , formerly known as dropsy or hydropsy, is an abnormal accumulation of fluid beneath the skin, or in one or more cavities of the body....
, compensate for ATP

Adenosine triphosphate

This article is about the chemical used by cells as an energy carrier. For other uses, see ATP .Adenosine-5'-triphosphate is a multifunctional nucleotide, and plays an important role in cell biology as a coenzyme that is the "molecule unit of currency" of intracellular energy transfer....
loss, etc.

Cryopreservation of cells is guided by the "Two-Factor Hypothesis" of American cryobiologist Peter Mazur, which states that excessively rapid cooling kills cells by intracellular ice formation and excessively slow cooling kills cells by either electrolyte

Electrolyte

An electrolyte is any substance containing free ions that behaves as an electrical conductor medium. Because they generally consist of ions in solution, electrolytes are also known as ionic solutions, but molten electrolytes and solid electrolytes are also possible....
toxicity

Toxicity

Toxicity is the degree to which a substance is able to damage an exposed organism. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a substructure of the organism, such as a cell or an organ , such as the liver ....
or mechanical crushing. During slow cooling ice forms extracellularly, causing water to osmotically

Osmosis

Osmosis is the diffusion of a solvent through a Semipermeable membrane, from a solution of low solute concentration to a solution with high solute concentration , up a solute concentration gradient....
leave cells, thereby dehydrating

Dehydration

Dehydration is the removal of water from an object. In Physiology terms, it entails a relative deficiency of water molecules in relation to other dissolved solutes....
them. Intracellular ice can be much more damaging than extracellular ice.

For red blood cell

Red blood cell

Red blood cells are the most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate body's principal means of delivering oxygen to the body tissues via the blood....
s the optimum cooling rate is very rapid (nearly 100°C per second), whereas for stem cell

Stem cell

Stem cells are Cell found in most, if not all, multi-cellular organisms. They are characterized by the ability to renew themselves through Mitosis cell division and Cellular differentiation into a diverse range of specialized cell types....
s the optimum cooling rate is very slow (1°C per minute). Cryoprotectant

Cryoprotectant

A cryoprotectant is a substance that is used to protect biological tissue from freezing damage . Arctic and Antarctic insects, fish, amphibians and reptiles create cryoprotectants in their bodies to minimize freezing damage during cold winter periods....
s, such as DMSO (dimethyl sulfoxide

Dimethyl sulfoxide

Dimethyl sulfoxide is the chemical compound with the chemical formula 2SO. It was first synthesized in 1866 by the Russian scientist Alexander Saytzeff, who reported his findings in a German chemistry journal in 1867....
) and glycerol

Glycerol

Glycerol is a chemical compound also commonly called glycerin or glycerine. It is a colorless, odorless, Viscosity liquid that is widely used in pharmaceutical formulations....
, are used to protect cells from freezing

Freezing

In physical science, freezing or solidification is the process in which a liquid turns into a solid when cold enough. The Melting point is the temperature at which this happens....
. A variety of cell types are protected by 10% DMSO. Cryobiologists attempt to optimize cryoprotectant concentration (minimizing both ice formation and toxicity) as well as cooling rate. Cells may be cooled at an optimum cooling rate to a temperature between −30°C and −40°C before being plunged into liquid nitrogen

Liquid nitrogen

Nucleation

Nucleation is the onset of a crystal in a small region. The phase transition can be the formation of a bubble or of a crystal from a liquid. Creation of liquid droplets in saturated vapor or the creation of gaseous bubbles in a saturated liquid is also characterized by nucleation ....
agents, but contain naturally-occurring vitrifying substances that can prevent ice formation in cells that have been moderately dehydrated. Cryobiologists are increasingly using mixtures of cryoprotectants for full vitrification

Vitrification

Vitrification is a process of converting a material into a glass-like amorphous solid that is free from any crystalline structure, either by the quick removal or addition of heat, or by mixing with an additive....
(zero ice formation) in preservation of cells, tissues and organs. Vitrification methods pose a challenge in the requirement to search for cryoprotectant mixtures that can minimize toxicity.

Scientific societies

The Society for Cryobiology was founded in 1964 to bring together those from the biological, medical and physical sciences who have a common interest in the effect of low temperatures on biological systems. As of 2007 the Society for Cryobiology had approximately 280 members from around the world, and one half of them are US

United States

The United States of America is a Federal government constitutional republic comprising U.S. state and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its Contiguous United States and Washington, D.C., the Capital districts and territories, lie between the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Oceans, Borders of the U...
based. The purpose of the Society is to promote scientific research in low temperature biology, to improve scientific understanding in this field, and to disseminate and apply this knowledge to the benefit of mankind. The Society organizes an annual scientific meeting

Academic conference

An academic conference is a :wikt:conference for researchers to present and discuss their work. Together with academic or scientific journals, conferences provide an important channel for exchange of information between researchers....
dedicated to all aspects of low-temperature biology. This international meeting offers opportunities for presentation and discussion of the most up-to-date research in cryobiology as well as reviewing specific aspects through symposia and workshops. Members are also kept informed of news and forthcoming meetings through the Society newsletter, News Notes. The 2008-2009 President of the Society for Cryobiology is John K. Critser.

The Society for Low Temperature Biology was founded in 1964 and became a Registered Charity

Charitable organization

The definition of charitable organization, and of charity, varies according to the country and in some instances the region of the country in which the charitable organization operates....
in 2003 (Charity Commission

Charity Commission

The Charity Commission for England and Wales is the non-ministerial government department that regulates Charitable organization in England and Wales....
for England & Wales No. 1099747) with the purpose of promoting research into the effects of low temperatures on all types of organisms and their constituent cells, tissues and organs. As of 2006 the Society for Low Temperature Biology had approximately 130 (mostly British and European) members and holds at least one Annual General Meeting. The program usually includes both a symposium

Symposium

Symposium originally referred to a drinking party but has since come to refer to any academic conference, or a style of university class characterized by an openly discursive rather than lecture and question–answer format....
on a topical subject and a session of free communications on any aspect of low temperature biology. Recent symposia have included long-term stability, preservation of aquatic organisms, cryopreservation of embryos and gamete

Gamete

A gamete is a Cell that fuses with another gamete during fertilization in organisms that sexual reproduction. In species which produce two morphologically distinct types of gametes, and in which each individual produces only one type, a female is any individual which produces the larger type of gamete?called an ovum ?and a male produces th...
s, preservation of plants, low temperature microscopy

Microscopy

Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view samples or objects. There are three well-known branches of microscopy, optical microscopy, electron microscopy and scanning probe microscopy....
, vitrification

Vitrification

Freeze drying

Freeze-drying is a dehydration process typically used to Food preservation a perishable material or make the material more convenient for transport....
and tissue banking

Biomedical tissue

Biomedical tissue is Tissue used for organ transplantation and medical research, particularly cancer research.Such tissues and organs may be referred to as: implant tissue, allograft, xenograft, skin graft tissue, human transplant tissue, implant bone....
. Members are informed through the Society Newsletter, which is presently published 3 times a year. Since 2005 the Chair of the Society for Low Temperature Biology has been Tiantian Zhang .

A list of additional scientific societies (mostly using "applied" cryobiology) can be found .

Journals

CRYOBIOLOGY, (publisher: Elsevier

Elsevier

Elsevier, the world's largest publisher of medical and scientific literature, forms part of the Reed Elsevier group. Based in Amsterdam, the company has substantial operations in the United Kingdom, USA and elsewhere....
) is the foremost scientific publication in this area, with approximately 60 refereed contributions published each year. Articles concern any aspect of low temperature biology and medicine (e.g. freezing, freeze-drying

Freeze drying

Freeze-drying is a dehydration process typically used to Food preservation a perishable material or make the material more convenient for transport....
, hibernation, cold tolerance and adaptation, cryoprotective compounds

Cryoprotectant

Cryosurgery

Hypothermia

Hypothermia is a condition in which an organism's temperature drops below that required for normal metabolism and bodily functions. In warm-blooded animals, core body temperature is maintained near a constant level through biologic homeostasis....
, and perfusion of organs).

CRYO LETTERS is an independent UK based rapid communication journal which publishes papers on the effects produced by low temperatures on a wide variety of biophysical and biological processes, or studies involving low temperature techniques in the investigation of biological and ecological

Ecology

Ecology is the science study of the distribution and Abundance of life and the interactions between organisms and their nature environment ....
topics.

CELL PRESERVATION TECHNOLOGY is a peer-reviewed quarterly scientific journal

Scientific journal

In academic publishing, a scientific journal is a periodical publication intended to further the progress of science, usually by reporting new research....
published by Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.

Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.

Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. is a publishing company founded by its President, Mary Ann Liebert, in 1980. The company publishes peer review journals, books, and trade magazines in the areas of biotechnology, biomedical research/life sciences, clinical medicine, alternative/integrative medicine, and surgery, and law....
dedicated to the diverse spectrum of preservation technologies including cryopreservation

Cryopreservation

Cryopreservation is a process where cell or whole Biological tissue are preserved by cooling to low sub-zero temperatures, such as 77 K or -196 ?C ....
, dry-state (anhydrobiosis

Cryptobiosis

Cryptobiosis is an ametabolic state of life entered by an organism in response to adverse environmental conditions such as desiccation, freezing, and oxygen deficiency....
), glassy-state

Vitrification

Cryobiology

Definitions/Distinctions

Major areas of study in cryobiology

Historical background

Cryobiology in Humans

Applied cryobiology

Scientific societies

Journals

See also

External links