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Cray-1
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The Cray-1 was a supercomputer designed by a team including Seymour Cray for Cray Research. The first Cray-1 system was installed at Los Alamos National Laboratory in 1976, and it went on to become one of the best known and most successful supercomputers in history.
History
In the years 1968 to 1972 Cray was working at Control Data on a new machine known as the CDC 8600, the logical successor to his earlier CDC 6600 and CDC 7600 designs.
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Encyclopedia
The Cray-1 was a supercomputer designed by a team including Seymour Cray for Cray Research. The first Cray-1 system was installed at Los Alamos National Laboratory in 1976, and it went on to become one of the best known and most successful supercomputers in history.
History
In the years 1968 to 1972 Cray was working at Control Data on a new machine known as the CDC 8600, the logical successor to his earlier CDC 6600 and CDC 7600 designs. The 8600 was essentially made up of four 7600s in a box, with an additional special mode that allowed them to operate lock-step in a SIMD fashion.
Jim Thornton, formerly Cray's engineering partner on earlier designs, had started a more radical project known as the CDC STAR-100. Unlike the 8600's brute-force approach to performance, the STAR took an entirely different route. In fact the main processor of the STAR had less performance than the 7600, but added additional hardware and instructions to speed up particularly common supercomputer tasks.
In 1972 the 8600 had reached a dead end. The machine was so incredibly complex that it was impossible to get one working properly; even a single faulty component would render the machine non-operational. Cray went to William Norris, Control Data's CEO, saying that a redesign from scratch was needed. At the time the company was in serious financial trouble, and with the STAR in the pipeline as well, Norris simply couldn't invest the money.
Cray left. Starting a new company HQ only yards from the CDC lab, both in the back yard of land he purchased in Chippewa Falls, WI, he and a group of former CDC employees started looking for ideas. At first the concept of building another supercomputer seemed impossible; if CDC couldn't afford it, how could a tiny company with no funding? But after the CTO traveled to Wall Street and found a lineup of investors more than willing to back Cray, all that was needed was a design.
In 1975 the 80 MHz Cray-1 was announced. Excitement was so high that a bidding war for the first machine broke out between Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and Los Alamos National Laboratory, the latter eventually winning and receiving serial number 001 in 1976 for a six-month trial. The National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) was Cray Research's first official customer in July 1977, paying US$8.86 million ($7.9 million plus $1 million for the disks). The NCAR machine was decommissioned in January 1979. The company expected to sell perhaps a dozen of the machines, but over eighty Cray-1s of all types were sold, priced from $5M to $8M. The machine made Cray a celebrity and the company a success, lasting until the supercomputer crash in the early 1990s.
The Cray-1 was succeeded in 1982 by the 800 MFLOPS Cray X-MP, the first Cray multi-processing computer. In 1985 the very advanced Cray-2, capable of 1.9 GFLOPS peak performance, succeeded the two first models but met a somewhat limited commercial success because of certain problems at producing sustained performance in real-world applications. A more conservatively designed evolutionary successor of the Cray-1 and X-MP models was therefore made, by the name Cray Y-MP, and launched in 1988.
Background
Typical scientific workloads consist of reading in large data sets, transforming them in some way, and then writing them back out again. Normally the transformations being applied are identical across all of the data points in the set. For instance, the program might add 5 to every number in a set of a million numbers. In traditional computers the program would loop over all million numbers, adding five, thereby generating a million instructions saying a = add b, c. Internally the computer solves this instruction in several steps. First it reads the instruction from memory and decodes it, then it collects any additional information it needs, in this case the numbers b and c, and then finally runs the operation and stores the results.
Vector machines
In the STAR, new instructions essentially wrote the loops for the user. The user told the machine where in memory the "big list of numbers" was stored, and then fed in a single instruction a(1..1000000) = addv b(1..1000000), c(1..1000000). At first glance it appears the savings are limited; in this case the machine fetches and decodes only a single instruction instead of 1000000, thereby saving 1000000 fetches and decodes, perhaps ¼ of the overall time.
But the real savings are not so obvious. Internally the computer's CPU is built up from a number of parts dedicated to a single task, for instance, adding a number or fetching from memory. Normally as the instruction flows through the machine only one part is active at any time, meaning the whole process has to complete before a value is written out. But the addition of an instruction pipeline changes this, in such machines the CPU will "look ahead" and start fetching the next instructions while the first is still being worked on. In this assembly line fashion any one instruction still takes as long to process, but as soon as one completes the next is already almost done.
Vector processors use this technique with one additional "trick". Because the data layout is "known", basically a set of numbers arranged linearly in memory, the pipelines can be tuned to improve the performance of fetches. On the receipt of a vector instruction, special hardware sets up the memory access for the arrays and stuffs the data into the processor as fast as possible.
CDC's approach in the STAR used what is today known as a memory-memory architecture. This referred to the way the machine gathered data, setting up its pipeline to read and write to memory directly. This allowed it to use vectors of any length or width (or stride as it is known), making it highly flexible. Unfortunately the pipeline had to be very "deep" in order to allow it to have enough instructions in flight to make up for the slow memory, and that meant the machine had a very high cost when switching from processing vectors to normal data. Additionally the slow "normal" performance of the machine meant that after the switch had taken place and the machine was running typical logic instructions, the performance was quite poor. The result was rather disappointing real-world performance, something that might have been obvious had the designers considered Amdahl's Law.
Cray's approach
Cray was able to look at the failure of the STAR and learn from it. He decided that in addition to fast vector processing, his design would also require excellent all-round logic performance as well. That way when the machine switched modes, it would still be the fastest out there. Additionally they noticed that the workloads could be dramatically improved in most cases through the use of registers.
Just as earlier machines had ignored the fact that most operations were being applied to many data points, the STAR ignored the fact that those same data points would be repeatedly operated on. Whereas the STAR would read and process the same memory five times to apply five vector operations on a set of data, it would be much faster to read them in once and apply all five operations while sitting in CPU's registers. Registers are extremely expensive in terms of circuitry so only so many could be provided, meaning that Cray's design would have less flexibility in terms of vector sizes. Instead of reading any sized vector several times as in the STAR, in the Cray design the machine would have to read small parts of the data at a time, but then run several operations at once. Given typical workloads, Cray felt that the small loss due to having to access memory in steps was a cost well worth paying.
Since the typical vector operation would involve loading a small set of data into the vector registers and then running several operations on it, the vector system of the new design had its own separate pipeline. For instance, the multiplication and addition units were implemented as separate hardware, so the results of one could be internally pipelined into the next, the instruction decode having already been handled in the machine's main pipeline. Cray referred to this concept as chaining, as it allowed programmers to "chain together" several instructions and extract higher performance.
Description
The new machine was the first Cray design to use integrated circuits (ICs). Although ICs had been available since the 1960s, it was only in the early 1970s that they reached the performance necessary for high-speed applications. The Cray-1 used only 4 different IC types, an ECL dual NAND gate (4 input + 5 input, each with differential output), another slower MECL 4/5 NAND gate used for address fanout, a 16x1 high speed (6 ns) static RAM used for registers, and a 1k x 1 static 50 ns RAM used for main memory. In all, the Cray-1 contained about 200,000 gates, roughly the same as the Intel 386 of the 1980s.
ICs were mounted on large five-layer printed circuit boards, with up to 144 ICs per board. Boards were then mounted back to back for cooling (see below) and placed in twenty-four 28-inch high racks containing 72 double-boards. The typical module (distinct processing unit) required one or two boards. In all the machine contained 1,662 modules in 113 varieties.
One problem discovered during initial design was that the operating speed of the machine was close enough to the signal times on the boards -a deliberate design feature- that standing waves could be set up in some of the electrical circuits. This meant that the signal might be arriving at its destination IC at a "low point" in the standing wave, making it difficult to detect. This problem was solved by adding slight delays into the signal path, either by placing foil beside the traces to add a small amount of capacitance, or alternately adding additional ICs at the signal's high points. Some estimates state that about 40% of the gates in the machine were there simply to add delay and clean up the signal.
As always, Cray spent a considerable time on the mechanical and electrical design of the system, improving performance through shortened cycle times. Modules were wired to each other with high-power circuits to reduce the effects of noise, allowing the receivers to "settle" faster. Each cable between the modules was made of twisted-pair, and cut to very specific lengths in order to avoid electrical reflections. Every amplifier was balanced, so if one wire was put to high power another was lowered, thereby making the demand on the power supply constant and avoid switching noise.
All of this high-power circuitry generates considerable heat, and as always Cray's designers spent as much effort on the refrigeration system as the rest of the mechanical design. In this case each circuit board was paired with a second, placed back to back with a sheet of copper between them. The copper sheet conducted heat to the edges of the cage, where liquid freon running in pipes drew it away to the cooling unit below the machine. The first Cray-1 was delayed six months due to problems in the cooling system; lubricant that is normally mixed with the freon to keep the compressor running would leak through the seals and eventually coat the boards with oil until they shorted out. New welding techniques had to be used to properly seal the tubing.
In order to wring every possible ounce of speed out of the machine, the entire chassis was bent into a large C-shape. Speed-dependent portions of the system were placed on the "inside edge" of the chassis where the wire-lengths were shorter. This allowed the cycle time to be decreased to 12.5 ns (80 MHz), not as fast as the 8 ns 8600 he had given up on, but fast enough to beat his earlier CDC 7600 and the STAR. NCAR estimated that the overall throughput on the system was 4.5 times the CDC 7600.
The Cray-1 was built as a 64-bit system, a departure from the 7600/6600 which were 60-bit machines (a change also planned for the 8600). Addressing was 24-bit, for a maximum of 1 megaword (8 MB) of main memory. Memory was spread across 16 banks, each with a 50 ns cycle time, allowing up to four words to be read per cycle.
The main register set consisted of eight 64-bit scalar (S) registers and eight 24-bit address (A) registers. These were backed by a set of sixty-four registers each for S and A temporary storage known as T and B respectively, which could not be seen by the functional units. The vector system added another eight 64-word by 64-bit vector (V) registers, as well as a vector length (VL) and vector mask (VM). Finally the system also included a 64-bit clock and four 64-bit instruction buffers that held sixty-four 16-bit instructions each. The hardware was set up to allow the vector registers to be fed at one word per cycle, while the address and scalar registers required two. In contrast, the entire sixteen-word instruction buffer could be filled in four cycles.
The system used twelve functional units, but had limited parallelism. It could fetch one instruction per clock cycle into the units, but operate on them in parallel and would retire two. Its theoretical performance was thus 160 MIPS (80 MHz × 2 instructions), although there were a few limitations that made floating point performance generally about 136 megaflops. However, by using vector instructions carefully and building useful chains, the system could peak at 250 megaflops.
Since the machine was designed to operate on large data sets, the design also dedicated considerable circuitry to I/O. Earlier Cray designs at CDC had included separate computers dedicated to this task, but this was no longer needed. Instead the Cray-1 included four 6-channel controllers, each of which was given access to main memory once every four cycles. The channels were 16-bits wide, and included 3 control bits and four for error correction, so the maximum transfer speed was 1 word per 100 ns, or 500K words per second for the entire machine.
The initial model, the Cray-1A, weighed 5.5 tons including the freon refrigeration system. Configured with 1 million words of RAM, the machine and its power supplies consumed about 115 kW of power; cooling and storage likely more than doubled this figure. A Data General SuperNova S/200 was generally used as a "front end" to feed control instructions into the machine, later replaced by the Eclipse.
The later Cray-1S had a slightly faster clockspeed of 12.0 ns, and main memory in sizes of 1, 2 and 4 million words. The Data General machines were replaced with an in-house 16-bit design running at 80 MIPS. The I/O system was separated from the main machine, connected to the main system via a 6 MB per second control channel and a 100 MB per second High Speed Data Channel. This separation made the 1S look like two "half crays" separated by a few feet, which allowed the I/O system to be expanded as needed. Systems could be bought in a variety of configurations from the S/500 with no I/O and ½ M-word of memory, to the S/4400 with 4M-words and 4 I/O processors.
The Cray 1-S was itself replaced by the Cray-1M, the M indicating that it used less expensive MOS-based RAM in the I/O system. The 1M was supplied in only three versions, the M/1200 with 1M-word in 8 banks, or the M/2200 and M/4200 with 2 or 4M in 16 banks. All of these machines included two, three or four I/O processors, and the system added an optional second High Speed Data Channel. Users could also add a Solid-state Storage Device, a RAM disk, with 8 to 32M-words of MOS-RAM.
Software
In 1978, the first standard software package for the Cray-1 was released, consisting of three main products:
- Cray Operating System (COS) (later machines would run UNICOS, Cray's UNIX flavour),
- Cray Assembler Language (CAL), and
- Cray FORTRAN (CFT), the first automatically vectorizing FORTRAN compiler
Comparison with modern PC-processors
As of 2007, the fastest PC processors perform over 40 GFLOPS, over 130 times faster than a Cray-1.
Other images of the Cray-1
External links
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