Corona (satellite) - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

The Corona program was a series of American

United States

The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...

strategic reconnaissance satellites produced and operated by the Central Intelligence Agency Directorate of Science & Technology

Central Intelligence Agency Directorate of Science & Technology

The Directorate of Science and Technology is the branch of the United States Central Intelligence Agency charged with developing and applying technology to advance the United States intelligence gathering.-Origins:...

with substantial assistance from the U.S. Air Force. The Corona satellites were used for photographic surveillance of the Soviet Union

Soviet Union

The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....

(USSR), the People's Republic of China

People's Republic of China

China , officially the People's Republic of China , is the most populous country in the world, with over 1.3 billion citizens. Located in East Asia, the country covers approximately 9.6 million square kilometres...

, and other areas beginning in June 1959 and ending in May 1972. The name of this program is sometimes seen as "CORONA", but its actual name "Corona" was a codeword, not an acronym for anything.

The Corona project was pushed forward especially following the shooting down of a U-2 spy plane over the Soviet Union in May 1960.

The Corona satellites were designated KH-1, KH-2, KH-3, KH-4, KH-4A and KH-4B. KH stood for "Key Hole" or "Keyhole" (Code number 1010), and the incrementing number indicated changes in the surveillance instrumentation, such as the change from single-panoramic to double-panoramic camera

Camera

A camera is a device that records and stores images. These images may be still photographs or moving images such as videos or movies. The term camera comes from the camera obscura , an early mechanism for projecting images...

s. The "KH" naming system was first used in 1962 with KH-4 and the earlier numbers were retroactively applied. There were 144 Corona satellites launched, of which 102 returned usable photograph

Photograph

A photograph is an image created by light falling on a light-sensitive surface, usually photographic film or an electronic imager such as a CCD or a CMOS chip. Most photographs are created using a camera, which uses a lens to focus the scene's visible wavelengths of light into a reproduction of...

History and Costs

Corona started under the name DISCOVERER as part of the WS-117L satellite reconnaissance and protection program of the US Air Force in 1956. In May 1958 the Department of Defense directed the transfer of the WS-117L program to ARPA

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency is an agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for the development of new technology for use by the military...

. In FY1958 WS-117L was funded by the AF at a level of US $ 108.2 million (inflation adjusted US$ billion in ). For DISCOVERER, AF and ARPA spent a combined sum of US $ 132.3 million in FY1959 (inflation adjusted US$ billion in ) and US $ 101.2 million in FY1960 (inflation adjusted US$ billion in ).

Technology

The Corona satellites used 31,500 feet (9,600 meters) of special 70 millimeter film

Film

A film, also called a movie or motion picture, is a series of still or moving images. It is produced by recording photographic images with cameras, or by creating images using animation techniques or visual effects...

with 24 inch (60 centimeter) focal length

Focal length

The focal length of an optical system is a measure of how strongly the system converges or diverges light. For an optical system in air, it is the distance over which initially collimated rays are brought to a focus...

cameras

Lens (optics)

A lens is an optical device with perfect or approximate axial symmetry which transmits and refracts light, converging or diverging the beam. A simple lens consists of a single optical element...

. Initially orbiting at altitudes from 165 to 460 kilometers above the surface of the Earth, the cameras could resolve images on the ground down to 7.5 meters in diameter

Diameter

In geometry, a diameter of a circle is any straight line segment that passes through the center of the circle and whose endpoints are on the circle. The diameters are the longest chords of the circle...

. The two KH-4 systems improved this resolution to 2.75 meters and 1.8 meters respectively, because they operated at lower orbital altitude

Altitude

Altitude or height is defined based on the context in which it is used . As a general definition, altitude is a distance measurement, usually in the vertical or "up" direction, between a reference datum and a point or object. The reference datum also often varies according to the context...

s.

The code name "Corona" was more fitting than its originators had ever imagined. The initial missions of the program suffered from many technical problems, among them, mysterious fogging and bright streaks that were seen on the returned film of some missions - only to disappear on the next mission. Eventually, it was determined by a collaborative team of scientists and engineers from the project and from academia, (among them: Luis Alvarez

Luis Alvarez

Luis W. Alvarez was an American experimental physicist and inventor, who spent nearly all of his long professional career on the faculty of the University of California, Berkeley...

, Sidney Beldner, Malvin Ruderman, and Sidney Drell

Sidney Drell

Sidney David Drell is an American theoretical physicist and arms control expert. He is a professor emeritus at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center and a senior fellow at Stanford University's Hoover Institution. Drell is a noted contributor in the field of quantum electrodynamics and particle...

) that electrostatic discharges (called corona discharge

Corona discharge

In electricity, a corona discharge is an electrical discharge brought on by the ionization of a fluid surrounding a conductor that is electrically energized...

s) caused by some of the rubber components of the camera

Camera

s, were exposing the film. Recommended corrective measures for solving this problem included better grounding

Grounding

Grounding or grounded may refer to:* Ground * Grounding , about the collapse of the airline Swissair* Grounding , restrictions placed on movement or privileges...

of the satellites' components and testing the outgassing

Outgassing

Outgassing is the release of a gas that was dissolved, trapped, frozen or absorbed in some material. As an example, research has shown how the concentration of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere has sometimes been linked to ocean outgassing...

of many parts before the cameras were assembled. These practices are still used on all reconnaissance satellites today, whether they are to orbit the Earth or to orbit another planet, such as Mars

Mars

Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun in the Solar System. The planet is named after the Roman god of war, Mars. It is often described as the "Red Planet", as the iron oxide prevalent on its surface gives it a reddish appearance...

or Jupiter

Jupiter

Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest planet within the Solar System. It is a gas giant with mass one-thousandth that of the Sun but is two and a half times the mass of all the other planets in our Solar System combined. Jupiter is classified as a gas giant along with Saturn,...

Manufacturing and ground support

The procurement and maintenance of the CORONA satellites was managed by the Central Intelligence Agency

Central Intelligence Agency

The Central Intelligence Agency is a civilian intelligence agency of the United States government. It is an executive agency and reports directly to the Director of National Intelligence, responsible for providing national security intelligence assessment to senior United States policymakers...

, which used cover arrangements lasting from 1 April 1958 to 1969 to get access to the Palo Alto plant of the Hiller Helicopter Corporation

Hiller Aircraft

Hiller Aircraft Company was founded in 1942 as Hiller Industries by Stanley Hiller to develop helicopters.- History :Stanley Hiller, then seventeen, established the first helicopter factory on the West Coast of the United States, located in Berkeley, California, in 1942, under the name "Hiller...

for the production. In this Advanced Project Integration Facility, the CORONA second rocket stage Agena

RM-81 Agena

The RM-81 Agena was an American rocket upper stage and satellite support bus which was developed by Lockheed initially for the canceled WS-117L reconnaissance satellite program...

, Itek cameras, Eastman Kodak Cooperation films, and General Electric reentry capsule were assembled and tested before shipment to Vandenberg AFB. In 1969, the program was relocated to the Lockheed facilities in Sunnyvale

Sunnyvale, California

Sunnyvale is a city in Santa Clara County, California, United States. It is one of the major cities that make up the Silicon Valley located in the San Francisco Bay Area...

, CA.

The Air Force credits the Onizuka Air Force Station

Onizuka Air Force Station

Onizuka Air Force Station was a United States Air Force installation in Santa Clara County, California, just outside the city limits of Sunnyvale, at the intersection of U.S. Route 101 and State Route 237...

as being the "birthplace of the Corona program."

Discoverer

The first dozen or more Corona satellites and their launches were cloaked with disinformation

Disinformation

Disinformation is intentionally false or inaccurate information that is spread deliberately. For this reason, it is synonymous with and sometimes called black propaganda. It is an act of deception and false statements to convince someone of untruth...

as being part of a space technology

Space technology

Space technology is technology that is related to entering, and retrieving objects or life forms from space."Every day" technologies such as weather forecasting, remote sensing, GPS systems, satellite television, and some long distance communications systems critically rely on space infrastructure...

development program called the Discoverer program. The first test launches for the Corona/Discoverer were carried out early in 1959. The capsule of Discoverer 2 might have been recovered by the Soviets, after landing on Spitsbergen

Spitsbergen

Spitsbergen is the largest and only permanently populated island of the Svalbard archipelago in Norway. Constituting the western-most bulk of the archipelago, it borders the Arctic Ocean, the Norwegian Sea and the Greenland Sea...

Island.
The first Corona launch containing a camera was carried out in June 1959 with the cover name Discoverer 4. This was a 750 kilogram satellite launched by a Thor-Agena

Thor-Agena

Thor-Agena was a series of orbital launch vehicles. The rockets used Thor first stages and Agena second stages. They are thus cousins of the more famous Thor-Deltas, which founded the Delta rocket family. The first attempted launch of a Thor-Agena was in January 1959...

rocket.

The plan for the Corona program was for its satellites to return canisters of exposed film to the Earth in re-entry

Re-Entry

"Re-Entry" was the second album released by UK R&B / Hip Hop collective Big Brovaz. After the album was delayed in May 2006, the band finally release the follow-up to "Nu Flow" on 9 April 2007...

capsules, called by the slang term "film buckets", which were to be recovered in mid-air

Mid-air retrieval

Mid-air retrieval is a technique used in atmospheric reentry when the reentering vehicle is incapable of a satisfactory unassisted landing. The vehicle is slowed by means of parachutes, and then a specially-equipped aircraft matches the vehicle's trajectory and catches it in mid-air.This is a risky...

by specially-equipped U.S. Air Force planes during their parachute descent. (The buckets were designed to float on the water for a short period of time for possible recovery by U.S. Navy ships, and then to sink if the recovery failed, via a water-dissolvable plug made of salt at the base of the capsule. This was for secrecy purposes.)

The return capsule of the Discoverer 13 mission, which launched August 10, 1960, was successfully recovered the next day. This was the first time that any object had been recovered successfully from orbit. After the mission of Discoverer 14, launch on August 18, 1960, its film bucket was successfully retrieved two days later by a C-119 Flying Boxcar

C-119 Flying Boxcar

The Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcar was an American military transport aircraft developed from the World War II-era Fairchild C-82 Packet, designed to carry cargo, personnel, litter patients, and mechanized equipment, and to drop cargo and troops by parachute...

transport plane. This was the first successful return of photographic film from orbit. In comparison, Sputnik 5

Sputnik 5

Korabl-Sputnik 2 , also known as Sputnik 5 in the West, was a Soviet artificial satellite, and the third test flight of the Vostok spacecraft. It was the first spaceflight to send animals into orbit and return them safely back to Earth...

was launched into orbit on August 19, 1960, one day after the launch of Discoverer 14. Sputnik 5 was a biosatellite

Biosatellite

A biosatellite is a satellite designed to carry life in space. The first satellite with animal was Soviet Sputnik 2 at November 3, 1957. On August 20, 1960 Soviet Sputnik 5 first time recovered animals from orbit to Earth....

that took into orbit the two Soviet space dogs, Belka and Strelka, and then safely returned them to the Earth .

At least two launches of Discoverers were used to test satellites for the Missile Defense Alarm System

Missile Defense Alarm System

The Missile Defense Alarm System was an American system of 12 early-warning satellites that provided limited notice of Soviet intercontinental ballistic missile launches between 1960 and 1966...

(MIDAS), an early missile-launch-detection program that used infrared cameras to detect the heat signature of rockets launching to orbit.

The Corona film bucket was later adapted for the KH-7 GAMBIT

KH-7

Codenamed Gambit, the KH-7 was a reconnaissance satellite used by the United States from July 1963 to June 1967. Like the older CORONA system, it acquired imagery intelligence by taking photographs and returning the undeveloped film to earth. It achieved a typical ground-resolution of to...

satellite, which took higher resolution photos.

The last launch under the Discoverer cover name was Discoverer 38 on 26 February 1962. Its bucket was successfully recovered in midair during the 65th orbit (the 13th recovery of a bucket; the ninth one in midair). Following this last use of the Discoverer name, the remaining launches of Corona satellites were entirely top secret. The last Corona launch was on 1972-05-25. The project was abandoned after a Soviet Navy

Soviet Navy

The Soviet Navy was the naval arm of the Soviet Armed Forces. Often referred to as the Red Fleet, the Soviet Navy would have played an instrumental role in a Warsaw Pact war with NATO, where it would have attempted to prevent naval convoys from bringing reinforcements across the Atlantic Ocean...

submarine

Submarine

A submarine is a watercraft capable of independent operation below the surface of the water. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability...

was detected waiting beneath a Corona mid-air retrieval zone in the Pacific Ocean

Pacific Ocean

The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth's oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south, bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, and the Americas in the east.At 165.2 million square kilometres in area, this largest division of the World...

. The best sequence of Corona missions was from 1966 to 1971, when there were 32 consecutive successful missions, including film recoveries.

An alternative program to the Corona program was named SAMOS

Samos (satellite)

The Samos E or SAMOS program was a relatively short-lived series of reconnaissance satellites for the United States in the early 1960s, also used as a cover for the intitial development of the KH-7 Gambit system...

. This program included several types of satellite which used a different photographic method. This involved capturing an image on photographic film, developing the film on board the satellite and then scanning the image electronically. The image was then transmitted

Transmitter

In electronics and telecommunications a transmitter or radio transmitter is an electronic device which, with the aid of an antenna, produces radio waves. The transmitter itself generates a radio frequency alternating current, which is applied to the antenna. When excited by this alternating...

via telemetry

Telemetry

Telemetry is a technology that allows measurements to be made at a distance, usually via radio wave transmission and reception of the information. The word is derived from Greek roots: tele = remote, and metron = measure...

to ground stations. The Samos E-1 and E-2 satellite programs used this system, but they were not able to take very many pictures and then relay them to the ground stations each day. Two later versions of the Samos program, such as the E-5 and the E-6, used the bucket-return approach, but neither of these programs carried out any successful missions.

ELINT subsatellites

Nine of the KH-4A and KH-4B missions included ELINT subsatellites, which were launched into a higher orbit.

Corona launches

Source: USGS

Time period	No.	Nickname	Resolution	Notes	Number
Jun 1959– Sep 1960	KH-1	"Corona", C	7.5 m	First series of American imaging spy satellites. Each satellite carried a single panoramic camera and a single return vehicle.	10 systems; 1 recovery.
Oct 1960– Oct 1961	KH-2	Corona′, C′,(C-prime)^*	7.5 m	Single panoramic camera and a single return vehicle.	7 systems; 4 recoveries.
Aug 1961– Jan 1962	KH-3	Corona‴, C‴,(C-triple-prime)^*	7.5 m	Single panoramic camera and a single return vehicle.	9 systems; 5 recoveries.
Feb 1962- Dec 1963	KH-4	Corona-M, Mural	7.5 m	Film return. Two panoramic cameras.	26 systems; 20 recoveries.
Aug 1963- Oct 1969	KH-4A	Corona J-1	2.75 m	Film return with two reentry vehicles and two panoramic cameras. Large volume of imagery.	52 systems; 94 recoveries.
Sep 1967- May 1972	KH-4B	Corona J-3	1.8 m	Film return with two reentry vehicles and two panoramic cameras.	17 systems; 32 recoveries.
Feb 1961- Aug 1964	KH-5 KH-5 KH-5 ARGON was a series of reconnaissance satellites produced by the United States from February 1961 to August 1964. The KH-5 operated similarly to the Corona series of satellites, as it ejected a canister of photographic film. At least 12 missions were attempted, but at least 7 resulted in...	Argon	140 m	Low-resolution mapping missions; single frame camera.	12 systems; 5 recoveries.
Mar 1963- July 1963	KH-6 KH-6 Codenamed Lanyard, the KH-6 was the unsuccessful first attempt to develop and deploy a high-resolution optical reconnaissance satellite by the United States National Reconnaissance Office. Launches and launch attempts spanned the period from March to July 1963. The project was quickly put together...	Lanyard	1.8 m	Experimental camera in a short-lived program.	3 systems; 2 recoveries.

^*(The stray "quote marks" are the original designations of the first three generations of cameras, as described in Perry's history.)

Declassification

The Corona program was officially classified top secret until 1992. Then, on February 22, 1995, the photos taken by the Corona satellites, and also by two contemporary programs (Argon and KH-6 Lanyard

KH-6

Codenamed Lanyard, the KH-6 was the unsuccessful first attempt to develop and deploy a high-resolution optical reconnaissance satellite by the United States National Reconnaissance Office. Launches and launch attempts spanned the period from March to July 1963. The project was quickly put together...

) were declassified under an Executive Order signed by President Bill Clinton

Bill Clinton

William Jefferson "Bill" Clinton is an American politician who served as the 42nd President of the United States from 1993 to 2001. Inaugurated at age 46, he was the third-youngest president. He took office at the end of the Cold War, and was the first president of the baby boomer generation...

. The further review by photo experts of the "obsolete broad-area film-return systems other than Corona" mandated by President Clinton's order led to the declassification in 2002 of the photos from the KH-7

KH-7

and the KH-9 low-resolution cameras.

The declassified imagery has since been used by a team of scientists from the Australian National University

Australian National University

The Australian National University is a teaching and research university located in the Australian capital, Canberra.As of 2009, the ANU employs 3,945 administrative staff who teach approximately 10,000 undergraduates, and 7,500 postgraduate students...

to locate and explore ancient habitation sites, pottery factories, megalithic tombs, and Palaeolithic archaeological remains in northern Syria

Syria

Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....

Launches

Mission No.	Cover Name	Launch Date	NSSDC ID No. International Designator The International Designator, also known as COSPAR designation, and in the United States as NSSDC ID, is an international naming convention for satellites...	Alt. Name	Camera	Notes
R&D	Discoverer	21 Jan 1959	1959-E01	1959-E01	none	Mission Failed. Failed to achieve orbit
R&D	Discoverer 1	28 Feb 1959	1959-002A	1959 BET	none	First object in polar orbit
R&D	Discoverer 2	13 Apr 1959	1959-003A	1959 GAM	none	First three-axis stabilized satellite; capsule recovery failed
R&D	Discoverer 3	03 Jun 1959	DISCOV3	1959-F02	none	Failed to orbit
9001	Discoverer 4	25 Jun 1959	DISC4	1959-U01	KH-1	Mission failed. Failed to achieve orbit.
9002	Discoverer 5	13 Aug 1959	1959-005A	1959 EPS 1	KH-1	Mission failed. Power supply failure. No recovery.
9003	Discoverer 6	19 Aug 1959	1959-006A	1959 ZET	KH-1	Mission failed. Retro rockets malfunctioned negating recovery.
9004	Discoverer 7	07 Nov 1959	1959-010A	1959 KAP	KH-1	Mission failed. Failed to achieve orbit.
9005	Discoverer 8	20 Nov 1959	1959-011A	1959 LAM	KH-1	Mission failed. Eccentric orbit negating recovery.
9006	Discoverer 9	04 Feb 1960	DiSC9	1960-F01	KH-1	Mission failed. Failed to achieve orbit.
9007	Discoverer 10	19 Feb 1960	DISC10	1960-F02	KH-1	Mission failed. Destroyed just after launch due to erratic attitude.
9008	Discoverer 11	15 Apr 1960	1960-004A	1960 DEL	KH-1	Mission failed. Attitude control system malfunctioned.
R&D	Discoverer 12	29 Jun 1960	DISC12	1960-F08	none	Failed to orbit
R&D	Discoverer 13	10 Aug 1960	1960-008A	1960 THE	none	Tested capsule recovery system; first successful capture.
9009		18 Aug 1960	1960-010A	1960 KAP	KH-1	First successful recovery of IMINT from space. Cameras operated satisfactorily.
9010	Discoverer 15	13 Sep 1960	1960-012A	1960 MU	KH-1	Mission failed. Attained orbit successfully. Capsule sank prior to retrieval.
9011	Discoverer 16	26 Oct 1960	1960-F15	1960-F15	KH-2	Mission failed. Satellite failed to separate from booster. Failed to achieve orbit.
9012	Discoverer 17	12 Nov 1960	1960-015A	1960 OMI	KH-2	Mission failed. Obtained orbit successfully. Film separated before any camera operation leaving only 1.7 ft (0.51816 m) of film in capsule.
9013	Discoverer 18	07 Dec 1960	1960-018A	1960 SIG	KH-2	First successful mission employing KH-2 camera system.
RM-1	Discoverer 19	20 Dec 1960	1960-019A	1960 TAU	none	Test of Midas missile-detection system
9014A	Discoverer 20	17 Feb 1961	1961-005A	1961 EPS 1	KH-5	See KH-5 KH-5 KH-5 ARGON was a series of reconnaissance satellites produced by the United States from February 1961 to August 1964. The KH-5 operated similarly to the Corona series of satellites, as it ejected a canister of photographic film. At least 12 missions were attempted, but at least 7 resulted in...
RM-2	Discoverer 21	18 Feb 1961	1961-006A	1961 ZET	none	Test of restartable rocket engine
9015	Discoverer 22	30 Mar 1961	DISC22	1961-F02	KH-2	Mission failed. Second stage failed to obtain orbital velocity.
9016A	Discoverer 23	08 Apr 1961	1961-011A	1961 LAM 1	KH-5	See KH-5
9018A	Discoverer 24	16 Jun 1961	DISC24	1961-F05	KH-5	See KH-5
9017	Discoverer 25	16 Jun 1961	1961-014A	1961 XI 1	KH-2	Capsule recovered from water on orbit 32. Streaks throughout film.
9019	Discoverer 26	07 Jul 1961	1961-016A	1961 PI	KH-2	Main camera malfunctioned on pass 22.
9020A	Discoverer 27	21 Jul 1961	DISC27	1961-F07	KH-5	See KH-5
9021	Discoverer 28	03 Aug 1961	DISC28	1961-F08	KH-2	Mission failed. No orbit. Satellite guidance system failed.
9022	Discoverer 30	12 Sep 1961	1961-024A	1961 OME 1	KH-3	Best mission to date. Same out-of-focus condition as in 9023.
9023	Discoverer 29	30 Aug 1961	1961-023A	1961 PSI	KH-3	First use of KH-3 camera system. All frames out of focus.
9024	Discoverer 31	17 Sep 1961	1961-026A	1961 A BET	KH-3	Mission failed. Power failure and loss of control gas on orbit 33. Capsule was not recovered.
9025	Discoverer 32	13 Oct 1961	1961-027A	1961 A GAM 1	KH-3	Capsule recovered on orbit 18. 96% of film out of focus.
9026	Discoverer 33	23 Oct 1961	DISC33	1961-F10	KH-3	Mission failed. Satellite failed to separate from Thor booster. No orbit.
9027	Discoverer 34	05 Nov 1961	1961-029A	1961 A EPS 1	KH-3	Mission failed. Improper launch angle resulted in extreme orbit. Gas valve failed
9028	Discoverer 35	15 Nov 1961	1961-030A	1961 A ZET 1	KH-3	All cameras operated satisfactorily. Grainy emulsion noted.
9029	Discoverer 36	12 Dec 1961	1961-034A	1961 A KAP 1	KH-3	Best mission to date. Launch carried OSCAR OSCAR OSCAR is an acronym for Orbiting Satellite Carrying Amateur Radio. OSCAR series satellites use amateur radio frequencies to facilitate communication between amateur radio stations. These satellites can be used for free by licensed amateur radio operators for voice and data communications... 1 to orbit.
9030	Discoverer 37	13 Jan 1962	DISC37	1962-F01	KH-3	Mission failed. No orbit.
9031	Discoverer 38	27 Feb 1962	1962-005A	1962 EPS 1	KH-4	First mission of the KH-4 series. Much of film slightly out of focus.
9032	Discoverer 39	18 Apr 1962	1962-011A	1962 LAM 1	KH-4	Best mission to date.
9033	FTV 1125	28 Apr 1962	1962-017A	1962 RHO 1	KH-4	Mission failed. Parachute ejector squibs holding parachute container cover failed to fire. No recovery.
9034A	FTV 1126	15 May 1962	1962-018A	1962 SIG 1	KH-5	See KH-5
9035	FTV 1128	30 May 1962	1962-021A	1962 PHI 1	KH-4	Slight corona static on film.
9036	FTV 1127	02 Jun 1962	1962-022A	1962 CHI 1	KH-4	Mission failed. During air catch. Launch carried OSCAR OSCAR OSCAR is an acronym for Orbiting Satellite Carrying Amateur Radio. OSCAR series satellites use amateur radio frequencies to facilitate communication between amateur radio stations. These satellites can be used for free by licensed amateur radio operators for voice and data communications... 2 to orbit.
9037	FTV 1129	23 Jun 1962	1962-026A	1962 A BET	KH-4	Corona static occurs on some film.
9038	FTV 1151	28 Jun 1962	1962-027A	1962 A GAM	KH-4	Severe corona static.
9039	FTV 1130	21 Jun 1962	1962-031A	1962 A ETA	KH-4	Aborted after 6 photo passes. Heavy corona and radiation fog.
9040	FTV 1131	28 Jun 1962	1962-032A	1962 A THE	KH-4	No filters on slave horizon cameras. Heavy corona and radiation fog.
9041	FTV 1152	02 Aug 1962	1962-034A	1962 A KAP 1	KH-4	Severe corona and radiation fog.
9042A	FTV 1132	01 Sep 1962	1962-044A	1962 A UPS	KH-5	See KH-5
9043	FTV 1133	17 Sep 1962	1962-046A	1962 A CHI	KH-4	placed in highly eccentric orbit (207 km x 670 km), caspule called down after one day, film suffered severe radiation fog due to SAA South Atlantic Anomaly The South Atlantic Anomaly is an area where the Earth's inner Van Allen radiation belt comes closest to the Earth's surface. This leads to an increased flux of energetic particles in this region and exposes orbiting satellites to higher than usual levels of radiation... crossing
9044	FTV 1153	29 Aug 1962	1962-042A	1962 A SIG	KH-4	Erratic vehicle attitude. Radiation fog minimal.
9045	FTV 1154	29 Sep 1962	1962-050A	1962 B BET	KH-4	First use of stellar camera
9046A	FTV 1134	09 Oct 1962	1962-053A	1962 B EPS	KH-5	See KH-5
9047	FTV 1136	05 Nov 1962	1962-063A	1962 B OMI	KH-4	Camera door malfunctioned
9048	FTV 1135	24 Nov 1962	1962-065A	1962 B RHO	KH-4	Some film exposed through base.
9049	FTV 1155	04 Dec 1962	1962-066A	1962 B SIG	KH-4	Mission failed. During air catch chute tore
9050	FTV 1156	14 Dec 1962	1962-069A	1962 B PHI	KH-4	Best mission to date.
9051	OPS 0048	07 Jan 1963	1963-002A	1963-002A	KH-4	Erratic vehicle attitude. Frame ephemeris not created.
9052	OPS 0583	28 Feb 1963	1963-F02	1963-F02	KH-4	Mission failed. Destroyed by range safety officer
9053	OPS 0720	01 Apr 1963	1963-007A	1963-007A	KH-4	Best imagery to date.
9054	OPS 0954	12 Jun 1963	1963-019A	1963-019A	KH-4	Some imagery seriously affected by corona.
9055A	OPS 1008	26 Apr 1963	1963-F07	1963-F07	KH-5	See KH-5
9056	OPS 0999	26 Jun 1963	1963-025A	1963-025A	KH-4	Experimental camera carried. Film affected by light leaks.
9057	OPS 1266	18 Jul 1963	1963-029A	1963-029A	KH-4	Best mission to date.
9058A	OPS 1561	29 Aug 1963	1963-035A	1963-035A	KH-5	See KH-5
9059A	OPS 2437	29 Oct 1963	1963-042A	1963-042A	KH-5	See KH-5
9060	OPS 2268	09 Nov 1963	1963-F14	1963-F14	KH-4	Mission failed. No orbit.
9061	OPS 2260	27 Nov 1963	1963-048A	1963-048A	KH-4	Mission failed. Return capsule separated from satellite but remained in orbit.
9062	OPS 1388	21 Dec 1963	1963-055A	1963-055A	KH-4	Corona static fogged much of film.
9065A	OPS 2739	21 Aug 1964	1964-048A	1964-048A	KH-5	See KH-5
9066A	OPS 3236	13 Jun 1964	1964-030A	1964-030A	KH-5	See KH-5
1001	OPS 1419	24 Aug 1963	1963-034A	1963-034A	KH-4A	First mission of KH-4A. Some film was fogged. Two buckets but 1001-2 was never recovered.
1002	OPS 1353	23 Sep 1963	1963-037A	1963-037A	KH-4A	Severe light leaks
1003	OPS 3467	24 Mar 1964	1964-F04	1964-F04	KH-4A	Mission failed. Guidance system failed. No orbit.
1004	OPS 3444	15 Feb 1964	1964-008A	1964-008A	KH-4A	Main cameras operated satisfactorily. Minor degradations due to static and light leaks.
1005	OPS 2921	27 Apr 1964	1964-022A	1964-022A	KH-4A	Mission failed. Recovery vehicle impacted in Venezuela.
1006	OPS 3483	04 Jun 1964	1964-027A	1964-027A	KH-4A	Highest quality imagery attained to date from the KH-4 system.
1007	OPS 3754	19 Jun 1964	1964-032A	1964-032A	KH-4A	Out-of-focus area on some film.
1008	OPS 3491	10 Jun 1964	1964-037A	1964-037A	KH-4A	Cameras operated satisfactorily
1009	OPS 3042	05 Aug 1964	1964-043A	1964-043A	KH-4A	Cameras operated successfully.
1010	OPS 3497	14 Sep 1964	1964-056A	1964-056A	KH-4A	Small out of focus areas on both cameras at random times throughout the mission.
1011	OPS 3333	05 Oct 1964	1964-061A	1964-061A	KH-4A	Primary mode of recovery failed on second portion of the mission (1011-2). Small out of focus areas present at random on both cameras.
1012	OPS 3559	17 Oct 1964	1964-067A	1964-067A	KH-4A	Vehicle attitude became erratic on the second portion of the mission necessitating an early recovery.
1013	OPS 5434	02 Nov 1964	1964-071A	1964-071A	KH-4A	Program anomaly occurred immediately after launch when both cameras operated for 417 frames. Main cameras ceased operation on rev 52D of first portion of mission negating second portion. About 65 % of aft camera film is out of focus.
1014	OPS 3360	18 Nov 1964	1964-075A	1964-075A	KH-4A	Cameras operated successfully.
1015	OPS 3358	19 Dec 1964	1964-085A	1964-085A	KH-4A	Discrepancies in planned and actual coverage due to telemetry problems during the first 6 revolutions. Small out-of-focus areas on film from aft camera.
1016	OPS 3928	15 Jan 1965	1965-002A	1965-002A	KH-4A	Smearing of highly reflective images due to reflections within camera.
1017	OPS 4782	25 Feb 1965	1965-013A	1965-013A	KH-4A	Capping shutter malfunction occurred during last 5 passes of mission.
1018	OPS 4803	25 Mar 1965	1965-026A	1965-026A	KH-4A	Cameras operated successfully. First KH-4A reconnaissance system to be launched into a retrograde orbit.
1019	OPS 5023	29 Apr 1965	1965-033A	1965-033A	KH-4A	Cameras operated successfully. Malfunction in recovery mode on 1019-2 negated recovery.
1020	OPS 8425	09 Jun 1965	1965-045A	1965-045A	KH-4A	All cameras operated satisfactorily. Erratic attitude caused an early recovery after the second day of 1020-2.
1021	OPS 8431	18 May 1965	1965-037A	1965-037A	KH-4A	Aft camera ceased operation on pass 102.
1022	OPS 5543	19 Jun 1965	1965-057A	1965-057A	KH-4A	All cameras operated satisfactorily.
1023	OPS 7208	17 Aug 1965	1965-067A	1965-067A	KH-4A	Program anomaly caused the fore camera to cease operation during revolutions 103-132.
1024	OPS 7221	22 Sep 1965	1965-074A	1965-074A	KH-4A	All cameras operated satisfactorily. Cameras not operated on passes 88D-93D.
1025	OPS 5325	05 Oct 1965	1965-079A	1965-079A	KH-4A	Main cameras operated satisfactorily.
1026	OPS 2155	28 Oct 1965	1965-086A	1965-086A	KH-4A	All cameras operated satisfactorily.
1027	OPS 7249	09 Dec 1965	1965-102A	1965-102A	KH-4A	Erratic attitude necessitated recovery after two days of operation. All cameras operated satisfactorily.
1028	OPS 4639	24 Dec 1965	1965-110A	1965-110A	KH-4A	Cameras operated satisfactorily.
1029	OPS 7291	02 Feb 1966	1966-007A	1966-007A	KH-4A	Both panoramic cameras were operational throughout.
1030	OPS 3488	09 Mar 1966	1966-018A	1966-018A	KH-4A	All cameras operated satisfactorily.
1031	OPS 1612	07 Apr 1966	1966-029A	1966-029A	KH-4A	The aft-looking camera malfunctioned after the recovery of bucket 1. No material was received in bucket 2 (1031-2).
1032	OPS 1508	3 May 1966	1966-F05A	1966-F05	KH-4A	Mission failed. Vehicle failed to achieve orbit.
1033	OPS 1778	24 May 1966	1966-042A	1966-042A	KH-4A	The stellar camera shutter of bucket 2 remained open for approximately 200 frames.
1034	OPS 1599	21 Jun 1966	1966-055A	1966-055A	KH-4A	Failure of velocity altitude programmer produced poor imagery after revolution 5.
1035	OPS 1703	20 Sep 1966	1966-085A	1966-085A	KH-4A	All cameras operated satisfactorily. First mission flown with pan geometry modification.
1036	OPS 1545	09 Aug 1966	1966-072A	1966-072A	KH-4A	All cameras operated satisfactorily.
1037	OPS 1866	08 Nov 1966	1966-102A	1966-102A	KH-4A	Second pan geometry mission. Higher than normal base plus fog encountered on both main camera records.
1038	OPS 1664	14 Jan 1967	1967-002A	1967-002A	KH-4A	Fair image quality.
1039	OPS 4750	22 Feb 1967	1967-015A	1967-015A	KH-4A	Normal KH-4 mission. Light from horizon camera on both main camera records during 1039-1.
1040	OPS 4779	30 Mar 1967	1967-029A	1967-029A	KH-4A	Satellite flown nose first.
1041	OPS 4696	9 May 1967	1967-043A	1967-043A	KH-4A	Due to the failure of the booster cut-off switch, the satellite went into a highly eccentric orbit. There was significant image degradation.
1042	OPS 3559	16 Jun 1967	1967-062A	1967-062A	KH-4A	Small out-of-focus area in forward camera of 1042-1.
1043	OPS 4827	07 Aug 1967	1967-076A	1967-076A	KH-4A	Forward camera film came out of the rails on pass 230D. Film degraded past this point.
1044	OPS 0562	02 Nov 1967	1967-109A	1967-109A	KH-4A	All cameras operated fine.
1045	OPS 2243	24 Jan 1968	1968-008A	1968-008A	KH-4A	All cameras operated satisfactorily.
1046	OPS 4849	14 Mar 1968	1968-020A	1968-020A	KH-4A	Image quality good for 1046-1 and fair for 1046-2.
1047	OPS 5343	20 Jun 1968	1968-052A	1968-052A	KH-4A	Out-of-focus imagery is present on both main camera records.
1048	OPS 0165	18 Sep 1968	1968-078A	1968-078A	KH-4A	Film in the forward camera separated and camera failed on mission 1048-2
1049	OPS 4740	12 Dec 1968	1968-112A	1968-112A	KH-4A	Degraded film
1050	OPS 3722	19 Mar 1969	1969-026A	1969-026A	KH-4A	Due to abnormal rotational rates after revolution 22
1051	OPS 1101	2 May 1969	1969-041A	1969-041A	KH-4A	Imagery of both pan camera records is soft and lacks crispness and edge sharpness.
1052	OPS 3531	22 Sep 1969	1969-079A	1969-079A	KH-4A	Last of the KH-4A missions
1101	OPS 5089	15 Sep 1967	1967-087A	1967-087A	KH-4B	First mission of the KH-4B series. Best film to date.
1102	OPS 1001	09 Dec 1967	1967-122A	1967-122A	KH-4B	Noticeable image smear for forward camera
1103	OPS 1419	1 May 1968	1968-039A	1968-039B	KH-4B	Out-of-focus imagery is present on both main camera records.
1104	OPS 5955	07 Aug 1968	1968-065A	1968-065A	KH-4B	Best imagery to date on any KH-4 systems. Bicolor and color infrared experiments were conducted on this mission, including SO-180 IR camouflage Camouflage Camouflage is a method of concealment that allows an otherwise visible animal, military vehicle, or other object to remain unnoticed, by blending with its environment. Examples include a leopard's spotted coat, the battledress of a modern soldier and a leaf-mimic butterfly... detection film.
1105	OPS 1315	03 Nov 1968	1968-098A	1968-098A	KH-4B	Image quality is variable and displays areas of soft focus and image smear.
1106	OPS 3890	05 Feb 1969	1969-010A	1969-010A	KH-4B	The best image quality to date.
1107	OPS 3654	24 Jun 1969	1969-063A	1969-063A	KH-4B	Forward camera failed on pass 1 and remained inoperative throughout the rest of the mission.
1108	OPS 6617	04 Dec 1969	1969-105A	1969-105A	KH-4B	Cameras operated satisfactorily and the mission carried 811 ft (247.2 m) of aerial color film added to the end of the film supply.
1109	OPS 0440	04 Mar 1970	1970-016A	1970-016A	KH-4B	Cameras operated satisfactorily but the overall image quality of both the forward and aft records is variable.
1110	OPS 4720	20 May 1970	1970-040A	1970-040A	KH-4B	The overall image quality is less than that provided by recent missions and 2
1111	OPS 4324	23 Jun 1970	1970-054A	1970-054A	KH-4B	The overall image quality is good.
1112	OPS 4992	18 Nov 1970	1970-098A	1970-098A	KH-4B	The forward camera failed on pass 104 and remained inoperative throughout the rest of the mission.
1113	OPS 3297	17 Feb 1971	1971-F01A	1971-F01	KH-4B	Mission failed due to failure of Thor booster. Destroyed shortly after launch.
1114	OPS 5300	24 Mar 1971	1971-022A	1971-022A	KH-4B	The overall image quality is good and comparable to the best of past missions. On-board program failed after pass 235
1115	OPS 5454	10 Sep 1971	1971-076A	1971-076A	KH-4B	Overall image quality is good.
1116	OPS 5640	19 Mar 1972	1972-032A	1972-032A	KH-4B	Very successful mission and image quality was good.
1117	OPS 6371	25 May 1972	1972-039A	1972-039A	KH-4B	Last KH-4B mission. Very successful mission, failure to deploy one solar panel and leak in Agena gas system shortened mission from 19 to 6 days

Photo gallery

File:Air Force Satellite Control Facility operation in recovery.PNG|AF Sat Ctrl Facility during recovery ops
File:CORONA_reentry_parameters.PNG|CORONA re-entry parameters

Popular culture

The 1963 thriller novel Ice Station Zebra and its 1968 film adaptation

Ice Station Zebra (film)

Ice Station Zebra is a 1968 action film directed by John Sturges, starring Rock Hudson, Patrick McGoohan, Ernest Borgnine, and Jim Brown. The screenplay by Alistair MacLean, Douglas Heyes, Harry Julian Fink, and W.R. Burnett is loosely based upon MacLean's 1963 novel of the same name. Both have...

were inspired, in part, by news accounts from April 17, 1959, about a missing experimental Corona satellite capsule (Discoverer II) that inadvertently landed near Spitsbergen