|
|
|
|
Contraction (grammar)
|
| |
|
| |
In current English usage, contraction is shortening of a word, syllable, or word group by omission of internal letters.
In traditional grammar, contraction can denote the formation of a new word from one word or a group of words, for example, by elision. This often occurs in rendering a common sequence of words or, as in French, in maintaining a flowing sound.
In strict analysis, contractions should not be confused with abbreviations or acronyms (including initialisms), with which they share some semantic and phonetic functions, though all three are connoted by the term "abbreviation" in loose parlance.
ractions may perform the same function as abbreviations.
Discussion
Ask a question about 'Contraction (grammar)' Start a new discussion about 'Contraction (grammar)' Answer questions from other users |
Encyclopedia
In current English usage, contraction is shortening of a word, syllable, or word group by omission of internal letters.
In traditional grammar, contraction can denote the formation of a new word from one word or a group of words, for example, by elision. This often occurs in rendering a common sequence of words or, as in French, in maintaining a flowing sound.
In strict analysis, contractions should not be confused with abbreviations or acronyms (including initialisms), with which they share some semantic and phonetic functions, though all three are connoted by the term "abbreviation" in loose parlance.
English
Contractions may perform the same function as abbreviations. Strictly, an abbreviation is formed by omitting the ending of a word, for which a full point (or full stop or period) is substituted, e.g., Lieut. for "Lieutenant". Contractions omit the middle of a word, and are generally not terminated with a full point, e.g., Ltd for "Limited". However, US style uses more points than British style does, e.g., commonly, in Jr. instead of Jr for "Junior".
An informal type of contraction occurs frequently in speech and writing, in which a syllable is substituted by an apostrophe and/or other mode of elision, e.g., can't for "cannot", won't for "will not". Such contractions are often either negations with not or combinations of pronouns with auxiliary verbs, e.g., I'll for "I will". Extremely informal examples include ain't for "am not" or "are not", and wouldn't've or even wouldn've for "would not have". At least one study has sought to analyze the category of negative informal contractions as the attachment of an inflectional suffix.
A commonly used English contraction of two words that does not fall into either of the above categories is let's, a contraction of "let us" that is used in forming the imperative mood in the first-person plural (e.g., "Let's go [somewhere]"). Use of the uncontracted "let us" typically carries an entirely different meaning, e.g., 'Let us go [free]'. "Let us" is rarely seen in the former sense and "let's" is never seen in the latter one.
Informal contractions are, by their nature, more frequent in speech than writing, e.g., John'd fix your television if you asked him. Contractions in English are generally not mandatory as in some other languages. It is almost always acceptable to write out (or say) all of the words of a contraction, though native speakers of English may judge a person not using contractions as sounding overly formal.
Common single-word contractions include: St for "Saint" (in proper names), ma'am for "madam" and fo'c'sle for "forecastle". St meaning "Street" (in proper names) is sometimes given a full point to eliminate any confusion with "Saint". Forms like gov't for "government" and int'l for "international" are purely written contractions, more accurately categorized as shorthand expressions.
Writers of English commonly confuse the possessive form of the pronoun it with its compounded contractions. The possessive form (its) has no apostrophe , while the contraction of it is or it has does have an apostrophe (it's). The same is true of the possessive form of "you" (your) with its contraction you're for "you are". See List of frequently misused English words.
The linguistic function of contractions is similar to and overlops that of portmanteau words. Some forms of syncope may also be considered contractions, such as wanna for want to, gonna for going to, and others common in colloquial speech.
Contractions are used sparingly in formal written English. The APA style guide prefers that contractions, including Latin abbreviations, are not used in plain text, and recommends that the equivalent phrase in English be written out. An exception is made for the Latin abbreviation et al ("and others"), which may be used with citations outside parentheses.
French
The French language has contractions to facilitate ease of speech, similar to English, as in C'est la vie ("That's life"), where c'est stands for ce+est ("that is"). In general, any monosyllabic word-final, non-silent e will contract if the following word begins with a vowel. For example the common words que (qu'-), je (j'-), and de (d'-). Unlike in English, however, these contractions are mandatory: one would never say (or write) *ce est or *que elle.
Certain prepositions can also be merged with masculine and plural direct articles, such as au for à le, aux for à les, du for de le, and des for de les. As with other contractions, these are mandatory.
Italian
In Italian, prepositions merge with direct articles in predictable ways. The prepositions a, da, di, in, su, con and per combine with the various forms of the direct article, namely il, lo, la, l', i, gli, gl', and le.
| | il | lo | la | l' | i | gli | (gl') | le |
|---|
| a | al | allo | alla | all' | ai | agli | (agl') | alle |
|---|
| da | dal | dallo | dalla | dall' | dai | dagli | (dagl') | dalle |
|---|
| di | del | dello | della | dell' | dei | degli | (degl') | delle |
|---|
| in | nel | nello | nella | nell' | nei | negli | (negl') | nelle |
|---|
| su | sul | sullo | sulla | sull' | sui | sugli | (sugl') | sulle |
|---|
| con | col | (collo) | (colla) | (coll') | coi | (cogli) | | (colle) |
|---|
| per | (pel) | (pello) | (pella) | (pell') | (pei) | (pegli) | | (pelle) |
|---|
- Contractions with a, da, di, in, and su are mandatory, but those with con and per are optional.
- Words in parentheses are no longer commonly used, but some still exist in common expressions such as colla voce.
- Formerly, gl' was used before words beginning with i, however it is no longer in common use.
The words ci and è (form of essere, to be) is contracted into c'è, there is.
- C'è un problema - There is a problem
Spanish
Spanish has two mandatory phonetic contractions: al (to the) for a el, and del (of the) for de el (not to be confused with a él, meaning to him, and de él, meaning his or, more literally, of him).
In informal spoken registers of Spanish, the word para "for" can be contracted to pa, for example in the subordinating conjunction pa'que (from para que "in order that"): Pa'que te enteres.
Another frequent informal use is the elision of d in the past participle suffix -ado, pronouncing cansado as cansao.
The elision of d in -ido is considered even more informal.
Both elisions are however common in Andalusian Spanish.
Thus the Andalusian quejío for quejido ("lament") has entered Standard Spanish as a term for a special feature of Flamenco singing.
The perceived vulgarity of the silent d may lead to hypercorrections like *bacalado for bacalao (stockfish) or *Bilbado for Bilbao.
Portuguese
In Portuguese, contractions are common. Several prepositions regularly contract with certain articles and pronouns. For instance, de (of) and por (by; formerly per) combine with the definite articles o and a (masculine and feminine forms of "the" respectively), producing do, da (of the), pelo, pela (by the). The preposition de contracts with the pronouns ele and ela (he, she), producing dele, dela (his, her). In addition, some verb forms contract with enclitic object pronouns: e.g., the verb amar (to love) combines with the pronoun a (her), giving amá-la (to love her). See a list at Wikipedia in Portuguese: List of contracted prepositions.
German
In informal, spoken German prepositional phrases, one can often merge the preposition and the article; for example, von dem becomes vom, zu dem becomes zum, or an das becomes ans. Some of these are so common that they are mandatory. In informal speech, also aufm for auf dem, unterm for unter dem, etc. are used, but would be considered incorrect if written, except maybe in quoted direct speech, in appropriate context and style.
Local languages in German-speaking areas
Regional dialects of German, and various local languages which usually were already used long before today's Standard German was built, use contractions usually more frequently than German, but varying widely between different local languages. The informally spoken German contractions are observed almost everywhere, most often, accompanied by additional ones, such as in den becoming in'n (sometimes im) or haben wir becoming hamwer, hammor, hemmer, or hamma depending on local intonation preferences. Bavarian features several contractions like e.g. gesund sind wir becoming xund samma which are schematically applied to all word or combinations of similar sound. Features like that are found in all central and southern language regions. A sample from Berlin: Sagen [Sie] einmal, Meister, kann man hier einmal hinein? is spoken as Samma, Meesta, kamma hier ma rin?
Several local languages along the Rhine have, possibly under influx of French, build contraction patterns involving up to entire sentences. In speech, words are often concatenated, frequently liaison is used. So, [Dat] kriegst Du nicht may become Kressenit, or Lohß mer jonn, han ich jesaat becomes Lomejon haschjesaat.
Mostly, there are no binding orthographies for local languages and dialects of German, so writing is left to a great extent to authors and their publishers. Outside quotations, at least, they usually pay little attention to print more than the most commonly spoken contractions, so as not to posslbly degrade readability. The use of apostrophes to indicate omissions is varying and considerably less frequent than in English publications.
Latin
There are several contractions in the Latin language. For example, the Latin verb "volo" (meaning "I want")—originally negated by the phrase "non volo" (I do not want)—became elided to "nolo", and "non volunt" (they do not want) was contracted to "nolunt" (they do not want). Similarly, there were the forms "malo/malumus/malunt" for "magis volo", which meant "I want more"; that is, "I prefer".
Ancient Greek
In Ancient Greek there are several types of contraction, for example in verbs with a stem in e (epsilon) affect their conjugations. There are also a (alpha) and ? (omicron) contractions in verbs, but e contractions also happen in nouns and verbs.
Example: f??-e-? (phileo), I love. To the verb stem, f??- (phil-) usually the endings -?, -e??, -e?, -?µe?, -ete, -??s?? are added. But with the -e-, they go to f???, f??e??, f??e?, f????µe?, f??e?te, f????s? (that is, I love, you love, he loves, we love, you love, they love)
Japanese
Some contractions in rapid speech include ~?? (-ssu) for ?? (desu) and ????? (suimasen) for ????? (sumimasen). ?? (dewa) is often contracted to ?? (ja). In certain grammatical contexts the particle ? (no) is contracted to simply ? (n).
When used after verbs ending in the conjunctive form ~? (-te), certain auxiliary verbs and their derivations are often abbreviated. Examples:
| Original Form | Transliteration | Contraction | Transliteration |
|---|
| -te iru / -te ita / -te imasu / etc. | | -te ru / -te ta / -te masu / etc. | | -te iku / -te itta / etc.* | | -te ku / -te tta / etc.* | | -te oku / -te oita / -te okimasu / etc. | | -toku / -toita / -tokimasu / etc. | | -te shimau / -te shimatta / -te shimaimasu / etc. | | -chau / -chatta / -chaimasu / etc. | | -de shimau / -de shimatta / -de shimaimasu / etc. | | -jau / -jatta / -jaimasu / etc. | | -te wa | | -cha | | -de wa | | -ja | | -nakute wa | | -nakucha |
* this abbreviation is never used in the polite conjugation, to avoid the resultant ambiguity between an abbreviated ikimasu (go) and the verb kimasu (come).
The ending ~???? (-nakereba) can be contracted to ~??? (-nakya) when it is used to indicate obligation. It is often used without an auxiliary, e.g. ?????(????) (ikanakya (ikenai)) "I have to go."
Other times, contractions are made to create new words or to give added or altered meaning:
- The word ?? (nanika) "something" is contracted to ??? (nanka) to make a colloquial word with a meaning along the lines of "sort of," but which can be used with almost no meaning. Its usage is as a filler word is similar to English "like."
- ???? (ja nai) "is not" is contracted to ??? (jan) which is used at the end of statements to show the speaker's belief or opinion, often when it is contrary to that of the listener, e.g. ?????! (ii jan!) "What, it's fine!"
- The commonly used particle-verb phrase ??? (to iu) is often contracted to ~??/~? (-tte/-te) to give a more informal or noncommittal feeling.
- ???? (to ieba), the conditional form of ??? (to iu) mentioned above, is contracted to ~??? (-tte ba) to show the speaker's annoyance at the listener's failure to listen to, remember, or heed what the speaker has said, e.g. ???????! (mo ii tte ba!) "I already told you I don't want to talk about it anymore!"
- The common words ? (da) and ?? (desu) are older contractions that originate from ??? (de aru) and ?????? (de gozaimasu). These are fully integrated into the language now, and are not generally thought of as contractions.
Various dialects of Japanese also use their own specific contractions which are often unintelligible to speakers of other dialects.
See also
External links
|
| |
|
|
