Consolatio Literary Genre
Encyclopedia
The Consolatio or consolatory oration is a type of ceremonial oratory, typically used rhetoric
ally to comfort mourners at funerals. It was one of the most popular classical rhetoric topics, and received new impetus under Renaissance humanism
.
encompassing various forms of consolatory
speeches, essays, poems, and personal letters. This literary tradition flourished in antiquity
, and its origins date back to the fifth century BC. Orators in antiquity
often delivered consolatory speeches to comfort mourners at funerals or in cases of public mourning. Friends wrote personal letters consoling each other on the loss of a loved one. These were often highly personal and emotional. In addition to personal offerings of solace, Consolatio works also include philosophical treatises on grief. These works are usually more detached in tone, and many are written in essay format. Many ancient poets even wrote verse in this distinct Consolatio style. These consolatory works are all called Consolatio because of their similar arguments, topoi
, and distinctive rhetorical appeals. Only fragments of early Consolatio works survive, and it is not until Cicero
's Tusculan Disputations, Seneca
's Ad Marciam
, and Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy
that a unified character appears. Scholars often view these works as the bedrock of the formal Consolatio tradition. (Fournier, introduction)
. The conventional opening of a Consolatio was All must die. The most typical arguments characterizing the Consolatio genre were:
"All must die; even the oldest must die; the youngest too must die, and this is as one with the death of the old."
In the post-classical period, an additional Christian consolation was developed. Consolatio works are united by their treatment of bereavement, by unique rhetorical structure and topoi, and by their use of universal themes to offer solace.
. Ancient rhetoricians were the first to manipulate language consciously to produce a desired effect. Plato
was the first to consider language as a way to manipulate the mind, eliciting specific thoughts and emotions. The Consolatio tradition developed in this light; authors believed language could be used as solace and consolation in times of grief. Others claim the genre arose from the Sophist belief in the healing power of discourse Some scholars believe the Consolatio tradition arose as a response to passages of grief found in the works of the Greek poet Homer
.
Although several ancient writings contain elements of the Consolatio tradition, it was the Academic Crantor of Soli
(c. 325- c. 275BC), a member of Plato’s Academy
, who first constructed his works in a distinct Consolatio Tradition. Although only fragments of his essays have survived, his influence is noted in the works of later writers, particularly Cicero’s Tusculan Disputations and Plutarch’s Consolation to Apollonius. Crantor advocated metriopatheia, a tactic for dealing with strong emotions. Cicero’s Consolatio
is widely accepted as the distinct work that transmitted the earlier Consolatio literary tradition to the Romans of the late Republic.
In the Early Imperial Age, most Consolatio works were constructed within the framework of Stoicism
. Seneca the Younger
produced the most recognizable examples of Consolatio in his three Consolations, Ad Marciam, Ad Polybium, and Ad Helviam Matrem. The most recognizable example of Consolatio in verse form was written by the pseudo-Ovidian, Consolatio ad Liviam
. In Boethius’ Consolation of Philosophy
, Philosophy herself consoles the author in his sore straits.
Other notable examples of the Consolatio tradition from Antiquity
: Pontus 4.11 in Ovid
's [Letters from the Black Sea
, Statius
’ poem consoling Abascantus on his wife’s death, Apollonius of Tyana
, the Emperor Julian
, and Libanius
. Libanius was also the author of the funeral orations consoling mourners after the death of the Emperor Julian. The Plutarchian Corpus
includes three works constructed in the Consolatio tradition: De exilio, Consolatio ad uxorem, Consolatio ad Apollonium.
, widely influenced other literary genres. Elements of the Consolatio tradition can be found in a plethora of later works, and the tradition continued through the Middle Ages and into the early modern era.
Christian ideology taught that the distress, and death itself, were punishments for Adam's fall, while conceding that the tribulations of life could be vehicles of divine correction.
A return to the ancient view commenced with Petrarch
, though the Quatrtrocento humanist
Coluccio Salutati
could only offer the solace of friendships and a sense of duty. The 'art of mourning' 's general revival was expressed in many consolatory letters that circulated in manuscript and were soon printed. Among them Gianozzo Manetti's "bitter dialogue" Antonini, dilectissimi filii sui, morte consolatorius (1438) took the new inimate view of grieving
, and Francesco Filelfo
offered an extensive compendium of Christian and Classical consolations in his consolatory oration for Antonio Marcello on the death of his son (1461). Marilyn Aronberg Lavin reads Piero della Francesca
's gnomic Flagellation of Christ
(c 1455-60) as a consolatio of two friends (portrayed) who had each recently lost a son.
Lawrence Sterne parodied Consolatio and solemn authors in his comic novel Tristram Shandy.
Rhetoric
Rhetoric is the art of discourse, an art that aims to improve the facility of speakers or writers who attempt to inform, persuade, or motivate particular audiences in specific situations. As a subject of formal study and a productive civic practice, rhetoric has played a central role in the Western...
ally to comfort mourners at funerals. It was one of the most popular classical rhetoric topics, and received new impetus under Renaissance humanism
Renaissance humanism
Renaissance humanism was an activity of cultural and educational reform engaged by scholars, writers, and civic leaders who are today known as Renaissance humanists. It developed during the fourteenth and the beginning of the fifteenth centuries, and was a response to the challenge of Mediæval...
.
Consolatio as a literary genre
The Consolatio literary tradition ("consolation" in English) is a broad literary genreLiterary genre
A literary genre is a category of literary composition. Genres may be determined by literary technique, tone, content, or even length. Genre should not be confused with age category, by which literature may be classified as either adult, young-adult, or children's. They also must not be confused...
encompassing various forms of consolatory
speeches, essays, poems, and personal letters. This literary tradition flourished in antiquity
Classical antiquity
Classical antiquity is a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, collectively known as the Greco-Roman world...
, and its origins date back to the fifth century BC. Orators in antiquity
Ancient history
Ancient history is the study of the written past from the beginning of recorded human history to the Early Middle Ages. The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, with Cuneiform script, the oldest discovered form of coherent writing, from the protoliterate period around the 30th century BC...
often delivered consolatory speeches to comfort mourners at funerals or in cases of public mourning. Friends wrote personal letters consoling each other on the loss of a loved one. These were often highly personal and emotional. In addition to personal offerings of solace, Consolatio works also include philosophical treatises on grief. These works are usually more detached in tone, and many are written in essay format. Many ancient poets even wrote verse in this distinct Consolatio style. These consolatory works are all called Consolatio because of their similar arguments, topoi
Literary topos
Topos , in Latin locus , referred in the context of classical Greek rhetoric to a standardised method of constructing or treating an argument. See topos in classical rhetoric...
, and distinctive rhetorical appeals. Only fragments of early Consolatio works survive, and it is not until Cicero
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero , was a Roman philosopher, statesman, lawyer, political theorist, and Roman constitutionalist. He came from a wealthy municipal family of the equestrian order, and is widely considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists.He introduced the Romans to the chief...
's Tusculan Disputations, Seneca
Seneca the Younger
Lucius Annaeus Seneca was a Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman, dramatist, and in one work humorist, of the Silver Age of Latin literature. He was tutor and later advisor to emperor Nero...
's Ad Marciam
Seneca's Consolations
Seneca's Consolations refers to Seneca’s three Consolatory works, De Consolatione ad Marciam, De Consolatione ad Polybium, De Consolatione ad Helviam, written around 40-45 AD.-Context of the Consolations:...
, and Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy
Consolation of Philosophy
Consolation of Philosophy is a philosophical work by Boethius, written around the year 524. It has been described as the single most important and influential work in the West on Medieval and early Renaissance Christianity, and is also the last great Western work that can be called Classical.-...
that a unified character appears. Scholars often view these works as the bedrock of the formal Consolatio tradition. (Fournier, introduction)
Defining characteristics
All Consolatio works draw from a relatively narrow range of arguments aimed at offering solace, to allay the distress caused by the death of a loved one, a matter of ill fortunaFortuna
Fortuna can mean:*Fortuna, the Roman goddess of luck -Geographical:*19 Fortuna, asteroid*Fortuna, California, town located on the north coast of California*Fortuna, United States Virgin Islands...
. The conventional opening of a Consolatio was All must die. The most typical arguments characterizing the Consolatio genre were:
"All must die; even the oldest must die; the youngest too must die, and this is as one with the death of the old."
In the post-classical period, an additional Christian consolation was developed. Consolatio works are united by their treatment of bereavement, by unique rhetorical structure and topoi, and by their use of universal themes to offer solace.
Ancient history
The Consolatio literary genre has its roots in the field of rhetoricRhetoric
Rhetoric is the art of discourse, an art that aims to improve the facility of speakers or writers who attempt to inform, persuade, or motivate particular audiences in specific situations. As a subject of formal study and a productive civic practice, rhetoric has played a central role in the Western...
. Ancient rhetoricians were the first to manipulate language consciously to produce a desired effect. Plato
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
was the first to consider language as a way to manipulate the mind, eliciting specific thoughts and emotions. The Consolatio tradition developed in this light; authors believed language could be used as solace and consolation in times of grief. Others claim the genre arose from the Sophist belief in the healing power of discourse Some scholars believe the Consolatio tradition arose as a response to passages of grief found in the works of the Greek poet Homer
Homer
In the Western classical tradition Homer , is the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, and is revered as the greatest ancient Greek epic poet. These epics lie at the beginning of the Western canon of literature, and have had an enormous influence on the history of literature.When he lived is...
.
Although several ancient writings contain elements of the Consolatio tradition, it was the Academic Crantor of Soli
Crantor
Crantor was a Greek philosopher of the Old Academy, probably born around the middle of the 4th century BC, at Soli in Cilicia.-Life:Crantor moved to Athens in order to study philosophy, where he became a pupil of Xenocrates and a friend of Polemo, and one of the most distinguished supporters of...
(c. 325- c. 275BC), a member of Plato’s Academy
Academy
An academy is an institution of higher learning, research, or honorary membership.The name traces back to Plato's school of philosophy, founded approximately 385 BC at Akademia, a sanctuary of Athena, the goddess of wisdom and skill, north of Athens, Greece. In the western world academia is the...
, who first constructed his works in a distinct Consolatio Tradition. Although only fragments of his essays have survived, his influence is noted in the works of later writers, particularly Cicero’s Tusculan Disputations and Plutarch’s Consolation to Apollonius. Crantor advocated metriopatheia, a tactic for dealing with strong emotions. Cicero’s Consolatio
Writings of Marcus Tullius Cicero
The Writings of Marcus Tullius Cicero constituted one of the most famous bodies of historical and philosophical work in all of Classical Antiquity. Cicero, a Roman statesman, lawyer, political theorist, philosopher, and Roman constitutionalist, lived from 106 to 43 BC...
is widely accepted as the distinct work that transmitted the earlier Consolatio literary tradition to the Romans of the late Republic.
In the Early Imperial Age, most Consolatio works were constructed within the framework of Stoicism
Stoicism
Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early . The Stoics taught that destructive emotions resulted from errors in judgment, and that a sage, or person of "moral and intellectual perfection," would not suffer such emotions.Stoics were concerned...
. Seneca the Younger
Seneca the Younger
Lucius Annaeus Seneca was a Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman, dramatist, and in one work humorist, of the Silver Age of Latin literature. He was tutor and later advisor to emperor Nero...
produced the most recognizable examples of Consolatio in his three Consolations, Ad Marciam, Ad Polybium, and Ad Helviam Matrem. The most recognizable example of Consolatio in verse form was written by the pseudo-Ovidian, Consolatio ad Liviam
Albinovanus Pedo
Albinovanus Pedo, Roman poet, flourished during the Augustan age.He wrote Theseis, referred to in a letter from his friend Ovid, epigrams which are commended by Martial and an epic poem on the exploits of Germanicus...
. In Boethius’ Consolation of Philosophy
Consolation of Philosophy
Consolation of Philosophy is a philosophical work by Boethius, written around the year 524. It has been described as the single most important and influential work in the West on Medieval and early Renaissance Christianity, and is also the last great Western work that can be called Classical.-...
, Philosophy herself consoles the author in his sore straits.
Other notable examples of the Consolatio tradition from Antiquity
Ancient history
Ancient history is the study of the written past from the beginning of recorded human history to the Early Middle Ages. The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, with Cuneiform script, the oldest discovered form of coherent writing, from the protoliterate period around the 30th century BC...
: Pontus 4.11 in Ovid
Ovid
Publius Ovidius Naso , known as Ovid in the English-speaking world, was a Roman poet who is best known as the author of the three major collections of erotic poetry: Heroides, Amores, and Ars Amatoria...
's [Letters from the Black Sea
Epistulae ex Ponto
Epistulae ex Ponto is a work of Ovid, in four books. It is especially important for our knowledge of Scythia Minor in his time....
, Statius
Statius
Publius Papinius Statius was a Roman poet of the 1st century CE . Besides his poetry in Latin, which include an epic poem, the Thebaid, a collection of occasional poetry, the Silvae, and the unfinished epic, the Achilleid, he is best known for his appearance as a major character in the Purgatory...
’ poem consoling Abascantus on his wife’s death, Apollonius of Tyana
Apollonius of Tyana
Apollonius of Tyana was a Greek Neopythagorean philosopher from the town of Tyana in the Roman province of Cappadocia in Asia Minor. Little is certainly known about him...
, the Emperor Julian
Julian the Apostate
Julian "the Apostate" , commonly known as Julian, or also Julian the Philosopher, was Roman Emperor from 361 to 363 and a noted philosopher and Greek writer....
, and Libanius
Libanius
Libanius was a Greek-speaking teacher of rhetoric of the Sophist school. During the rise of Christian hegemony in the later Roman Empire, he remained unconverted and regarded himself as a Hellene in religious matters.-Life:...
. Libanius was also the author of the funeral orations consoling mourners after the death of the Emperor Julian. The Plutarchian Corpus
Plutarch
Plutarch then named, on his becoming a Roman citizen, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus , c. 46 – 120 AD, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist known primarily for his Parallel Lives and Moralia...
includes three works constructed in the Consolatio tradition: De exilio, Consolatio ad uxorem, Consolatio ad Apollonium.
Reception and influence
The Consolatio genre, particularly its distinct tone and topoiLiterary topos
Topos , in Latin locus , referred in the context of classical Greek rhetoric to a standardised method of constructing or treating an argument. See topos in classical rhetoric...
, widely influenced other literary genres. Elements of the Consolatio tradition can be found in a plethora of later works, and the tradition continued through the Middle Ages and into the early modern era.
Consolatio tradition
In the Middle AgesMiddle Ages
The Middle Ages is a periodization of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and precedes the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period of a three-period division of Western history: Classic, Medieval and Modern...
Christian ideology taught that the distress, and death itself, were punishments for Adam's fall, while conceding that the tribulations of life could be vehicles of divine correction.
A return to the ancient view commenced with Petrarch
Petrarch
Francesco Petrarca , known in English as Petrarch, was an Italian scholar, poet and one of the earliest humanists. Petrarch is often called the "Father of Humanism"...
, though the Quatrtrocento humanist
Renaissance humanism
Renaissance humanism was an activity of cultural and educational reform engaged by scholars, writers, and civic leaders who are today known as Renaissance humanists. It developed during the fourteenth and the beginning of the fifteenth centuries, and was a response to the challenge of Mediæval...
Coluccio Salutati
Coluccio Salutati
Coluccio Salutati was an Italian Humanist and man of letters, and one of the most important political and cultural leaders of Renaissance Florence.-Birth and Early Career:...
could only offer the solace of friendships and a sense of duty. The 'art of mourning' 's general revival was expressed in many consolatory letters that circulated in manuscript and were soon printed. Among them Gianozzo Manetti's "bitter dialogue" Antonini, dilectissimi filii sui, morte consolatorius (1438) took the new inimate view of grieving
Grief
Grief is a multi-faceted response to loss, particularly to the loss of someone or something to which a bond was formed. Although conventionally focused on the emotional response to loss, it also has physical, cognitive, behavioral, social, and philosophical dimensions...
, and Francesco Filelfo
Francesco Filelfo
Francesco Filelfo was an Italian Renaissance humanist.-Biography:Filelfo was born at Tolentino, in the March of Ancona. He is believed to be a third cousin of Leonardo Da Vinci. At the time of his birth, Petrarch and the students of Florence had already brought the first act in the recovery of...
offered an extensive compendium of Christian and Classical consolations in his consolatory oration for Antonio Marcello on the death of his son (1461). Marilyn Aronberg Lavin reads Piero della Francesca
Piero della Francesca
Piero della Francesca was a painter of the Early Renaissance. As testified by Giorgio Vasari in his Lives of the Artists, to contemporaries he was also known as a mathematician and geometer. Nowadays Piero della Francesca is chiefly appreciated for his art. His painting was characterized by its...
's gnomic Flagellation of Christ
Flagellation of Christ (Piero della Francesca)
The Flagellation of Christ is a painting by Piero della Francesca in the Galleria Nazionale delle Marche in Urbino, Italy. Called by one writer an "enigmatic little painting," the composition is complex and unusual, and its iconography has been the subject of widely differing theories...
(c 1455-60) as a consolatio of two friends (portrayed) who had each recently lost a son.
Lawrence Sterne parodied Consolatio and solemn authors in his comic novel Tristram Shandy.