Connected space

# Connected space

Overview
In topology
Topology
Topology is a major area of mathematics concerned with properties that are preserved under continuous deformations of objects, such as deformations that involve stretching, but no tearing or gluing...

and related branches of mathematics
Mathematics
Mathematics is the study of quantity, space, structure, and change. Mathematicians seek out patterns and formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proofs, which are arguments sufficient to convince other mathematicians of their validity...

, a connected space is a topological space
Topological space
Topological spaces are mathematical structures that allow the formal definition of concepts such as convergence, connectedness, and continuity. They appear in virtually every branch of modern mathematics and are a central unifying notion...

that cannot be represented as the union
Union (set theory)
In set theory, the union of a collection of sets is the set of all distinct elements in the collection. The union of a collection of sets S_1, S_2, S_3, \dots , S_n\,\! gives a set S_1 \cup S_2 \cup S_3 \cup \dots \cup S_n.- Definition :...

of two or more disjoint nonempty open subsets. Connectedness is one of the principal topological properties that is used to distinguish topological spaces. A stronger notion is that of a path-connected space, which is a space where any two points can be joined by a path
Path (topology)
In mathematics, a path in a topological space X is a continuous map f from the unit interval I = [0,1] to XThe initial point of the path is f and the terminal point is f. One often speaks of a "path from x to y" where x and y are the initial and terminal points of the path...

.
Discussion

Encyclopedia
In topology
Topology
Topology is a major area of mathematics concerned with properties that are preserved under continuous deformations of objects, such as deformations that involve stretching, but no tearing or gluing...

and related branches of mathematics
Mathematics
Mathematics is the study of quantity, space, structure, and change. Mathematicians seek out patterns and formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proofs, which are arguments sufficient to convince other mathematicians of their validity...

, a connected space is a topological space
Topological space
Topological spaces are mathematical structures that allow the formal definition of concepts such as convergence, connectedness, and continuity. They appear in virtually every branch of modern mathematics and are a central unifying notion...

that cannot be represented as the union
Union (set theory)
In set theory, the union of a collection of sets is the set of all distinct elements in the collection. The union of a collection of sets S_1, S_2, S_3, \dots , S_n\,\! gives a set S_1 \cup S_2 \cup S_3 \cup \dots \cup S_n.- Definition :...

of two or more disjoint nonempty open subsets. Connectedness is one of the principal topological properties that is used to distinguish topological spaces. A stronger notion is that of a path-connected space, which is a space where any two points can be joined by a path
Path (topology)
In mathematics, a path in a topological space X is a continuous map f from the unit interval I = [0,1] to XThe initial point of the path is f and the terminal point is f. One often speaks of a "path from x to y" where x and y are the initial and terminal points of the path...

.

A subset of a topological space X is a connected set if it is a connected space when viewed as a subspace
Subspace topology
In topology and related areas of mathematics, a subspace of a topological space X is a subset S of X which is equipped with a natural topology induced from that of X called the subspace topology .- Definition :Given a topological space and a subset S of X, the...

of X.

As an example of a space that is not connected, one can delete an infinite line from the plane. Other examples of disconnected spaces (that is, spaces which are not connected) include the plane with a closed annulus
Annulus (mathematics)
In mathematics, an annulus is a ring-shaped geometric figure, or more generally, a term used to name a ring-shaped object. Or, it is the area between two concentric circles...

removed, as well as the union of two disjoint open disks
Disk (mathematics)
In geometry, a disk is the region in a plane bounded by a circle.A disk is said to be closed or open according to whether or not it contains the circle that constitutes its boundary...

in two-dimensional Euclidean space.

## Formal definition

A topological space
Topological space
Topological spaces are mathematical structures that allow the formal definition of concepts such as convergence, connectedness, and continuity. They appear in virtually every branch of modern mathematics and are a central unifying notion...

X is said to be disconnected if it is the union
Union (set theory)
In set theory, the union of a collection of sets is the set of all distinct elements in the collection. The union of a collection of sets S_1, S_2, S_3, \dots , S_n\,\! gives a set S_1 \cup S_2 \cup S_3 \cup \dots \cup S_n.- Definition :...

of two disjoint nonempty open set
Open set
The concept of an open set is fundamental to many areas of mathematics, especially point-set topology and metric topology. Intuitively speaking, a set U is open if any point x in U can be "moved" a small amount in any direction and still be in the set U...

s. Otherwise, X is said to be connected. A subset
Subset
In mathematics, especially in set theory, a set A is a subset of a set B if A is "contained" inside B. A and B may coincide. The relationship of one set being a subset of another is called inclusion or sometimes containment...

of a topological space is said to be connected if it is connected under its subspace topology. Some authors exclude the empty set
Empty set
In mathematics, and more specifically set theory, the empty set is the unique set having no elements; its size or cardinality is zero. Some axiomatic set theories assure that the empty set exists by including an axiom of empty set; in other theories, its existence can be deduced...

For a topological space X the following conditions are equivalent:
1. X is connected.
2. X cannot be divided into two disjoint nonempty closed set
Closed set
In geometry, topology, and related branches of mathematics, a closed set is a set whose complement is an open set. In a topological space, a closed set can be defined as a set which contains all its limit points...

s.
3. The only subsets of X which are both open and closed (clopen set
Clopen set
In topology, a clopen set in a topological space is a set which is both open and closed. That this is possible for a set is not as counter-intuitive as it might seem if the terms open and closed were thought of as antonyms; in fact they are not...

s) are X and the empty set.
4. The only subsets of X with empty boundary
Boundary (topology)
In topology and mathematics in general, the boundary of a subset S of a topological space X is the set of points which can be approached both from S and from the outside of S. More precisely, it is the set of points in the closure of S, not belonging to the interior of S. An element of the boundary...

are X and the empty set.
5. X cannot be written as the union of two nonempty separated sets
Separated sets
In topology and related branches of mathematics, separated sets are pairs of subsets of a given topological space that are related to each other in a certain way....

.
6. The only continuous functions from X to {0,1} are constant.

### Connected components

The maximal
Maximal element
In mathematics, especially in order theory, a maximal element of a subset S of some partially ordered set is an element of S that is not smaller than any other element in S. The term minimal element is defined dually...

connected subsets of a nonempty topological space are called the connected components of the space.
The components of any topological space X form a partition
Partition of a set
In mathematics, a partition of a set X is a division of X into non-overlapping and non-empty "parts" or "blocks" or "cells" that cover all of X...

of X: they are disjoint, nonempty, and their union is the whole space. (Since we are insisting on calling the empty topological space connected, we need a special convention here: the empty space has no connected components.)
Every component is a closed subset of the original space. It follows that, in the case where their number is finite, each component is also an open subset. However, if their number is infinite, this might not be the case; for instance, the connected components of the set of the rational number
Rational number
In mathematics, a rational number is any number that can be expressed as the quotient or fraction a/b of two integers, with the denominator b not equal to zero. Since b may be equal to 1, every integer is a rational number...

s are the one-point sets, which are not open.

Let be a connected component of x in a topological space X, and be the intersection of all open-closed sets containing x (called quasi-component
Locally connected space
In topology and other branches of mathematics, a topological space X islocally connected if every point admits a neighbourhood basis consisting entirely of open, connected sets.-Background:...

of x.) Then where the equality holds if X is compact Hausdorff or locally connected.

### Disconnected spaces

A space in which all components are one-point sets is called totally disconnected. Related to this property, a space X is called totally separated if, for any two elements x and y of X, there exist disjoint open neighborhoods U of x and V of y such that X is the union of U and V. Clearly any totally separated space is totally disconnected, but the converse does not hold. For example take two copies of the rational numbers Q, and identify them at every point except zero. The resulting space, with the quotient topology, is totally disconnected. However, by considering the two copies of zero, one sees that the space is not totally separated. In fact, it is not even Hausdorff
Hausdorff space
In topology and related branches of mathematics, a Hausdorff space, separated space or T2 space is a topological space in which distinct points have disjoint neighbourhoods. Of the many separation axioms that can be imposed on a topological space, the "Hausdorff condition" is the most frequently...

, and the condition of being totally separated is strictly stronger than the condition of being Hausdorff.

## Examples

• The closed interval [0, 2] in the standard
Euclidean space
In mathematics, Euclidean space is the Euclidean plane and three-dimensional space of Euclidean geometry, as well as the generalizations of these notions to higher dimensions...

subspace topology
Subspace topology
In topology and related areas of mathematics, a subspace of a topological space X is a subset S of X which is equipped with a natural topology induced from that of X called the subspace topology .- Definition :Given a topological space and a subset S of X, the...

is connected; although it can, for example, be written as the union of [0, 1) and [1, 2], the second set is not open in the aforementioned topology of [0, 2].
• The union of [0, 1) and (1, 2] is disconnected; both of these intervals are open in the standard topological space [0, 1) ∪ (1, 2].
• (0, 1) ∪ {3} is disconnected.
• A convex set
Convex set
In Euclidean space, an object is convex if for every pair of points within the object, every point on the straight line segment that joins them is also within the object...

is connected; it is actually simply connected.
• A Euclidean plane
Euclidean space
In mathematics, Euclidean space is the Euclidean plane and three-dimensional space of Euclidean geometry, as well as the generalizations of these notions to higher dimensions...

excluding the origin, (0, 0), is connected, but is not simply connected. The three-dimensional Euclidean space without the origin is connected, and even simply connected. In contrast, the one-dimensional Euclidean space without the origin is not connected.
• A Euclidean plane with a straight line removed is not connected since it consists of two half-planes.
• The space of real number
Real number
In mathematics, a real number is a value that represents a quantity along a continuum, such as -5 , 4/3 , 8.6 , √2 and π...

s with the usual topology is connected.
• Any topological vector space
Topological vector space
In mathematics, a topological vector space is one of the basic structures investigated in functional analysis...

over a connected field is connected.
• Every discrete topological space with at least two elements is disconnected, in fact such a space is totally disconnected
Totally disconnected space
In topology and related branches of mathematics, a totally disconnected space is a topological space that is maximally disconnected, in the sense that it has no non-trivial connected subsets...

. The simplest example is the discrete two-point space
Discrete two-point space
In topology, a branch of mathematics, a discrete two-point space is the simplest example of a totally disconnected discrete space. The points can be denoted by the symbols 0 and 1....

.
• The Cantor set
Cantor set
In mathematics, the Cantor set is a set of points lying on a single line segment that has a number of remarkable and deep properties. It was discovered in 1875 by Henry John Stephen Smith and introduced by German mathematician Georg Cantor in 1883....

is totally disconnected; since the set contains uncountably many points, it has uncountably many components.
• If a space X is homotopy equivalent
Homotopy
In topology, two continuous functions from one topological space to another are called homotopic if one can be "continuously deformed" into the other, such a deformation being called a homotopy between the two functions...

to a connected space, then X is itself connected.
• The topologist's sine curve
Topologist's sine curve
In the branch of mathematics known as topology, the topologist's sine curve is a topological space with several interesting properties that make it an important textbook example....

is an example of a set that is connected but is neither path connected nor locally connected.
• The general linear group
General linear group
In mathematics, the general linear group of degree n is the set of n×n invertible matrices, together with the operation of ordinary matrix multiplication. This forms a group, because the product of two invertible matrices is again invertible, and the inverse of an invertible matrix is invertible...

(that is, the group of n-by-n real matrices) consists of two connected components: the one with matrices of positive determinant and the other of negative determinant. In particular, it is not connected. In contrast, is connected. More generally, the set of invertible bounded operators on a (complex) Hilbert space is connected.
• The spectrum of a commutative local ring
Local ring
In abstract algebra, more particularly in ring theory, local rings are certain rings that are comparatively simple, and serve to describe what is called "local behaviour", in the sense of functions defined on varieties or manifolds, or of algebraic number fields examined at a particular place, or...

is connected. More generally, the spectrum of a commutative ring is connected if and only if it has no idempotent  if and only if the ring is not a product of two rings in a nontrivial way.

## Path connectedness

A path
Path (topology)
In mathematics, a path in a topological space X is a continuous map f from the unit interval I = [0,1] to XThe initial point of the path is f and the terminal point is f. One often speaks of a "path from x to y" where x and y are the initial and terminal points of the path...

from a point x to a point y in a topological space
Topological space
Topological spaces are mathematical structures that allow the formal definition of concepts such as convergence, connectedness, and continuity. They appear in virtually every branch of modern mathematics and are a central unifying notion...

X is a continuous function f from the unit interval
Unit interval
In mathematics, the unit interval is the closed interval , that is, the set of all real numbers that are greater than or equal to 0 and less than or equal to 1...

[0,1] to X with f(0) = x and f(1) = y. A path-component of X is an equivalence class of X under the equivalence relation
Equivalence relation
In mathematics, an equivalence relation is a relation that, loosely speaking, partitions a set so that every element of the set is a member of one and only one cell of the partition. Two elements of the set are considered equivalent if and only if they are elements of the same cell...

which makes x equivalent to y if there is a path from x to y. The space X is said to be path-connected (or pathwise connected or 0-connected) if there is at most one path-component, i.e. if there is a path joining any two points in X. Again, many others exclude the empty space.

Every path-connected space is connected. The converse is not always true: examples of connected spaces that are not path-connected include the extended long line
Long line (topology)
In topology, the long line is a topological space somewhat similar to the real line, but in a certain way "longer". It behaves locally just like the real line, but has different large-scale properties. Therefore it serves as one of the basic counterexamples of topology...

L* and the topologist's sine curve
Topologist's sine curve
In the branch of mathematics known as topology, the topologist's sine curve is a topological space with several interesting properties that make it an important textbook example....

.

However, subsets of the real line
Real line
In mathematics, the real line, or real number line is the line whose points are the real numbers. That is, the real line is the set of all real numbers, viewed as a geometric space, namely the Euclidean space of dimension one...

R are connected if and only if
If and only if
In logic and related fields such as mathematics and philosophy, if and only if is a biconditional logical connective between statements....

they are path-connected; these subsets are the intervals
Interval (mathematics)
In mathematics, a interval is a set of real numbers with the property that any number that lies between two numbers in the set is also included in the set. For example, the set of all numbers satisfying is an interval which contains and , as well as all numbers between them...

of R.
Also, open subsets of Rn or Cn are connected if and only if they are path-connected.
Additionally, connectedness and path-connectedness are the same for finite topological spaces.

## Arc connectedness

A space X is said to be arc-connected or arcwise connected if any two distinct points can be joined by an arc, that is a path f which is a homeomorphism
Homeomorphism
In the mathematical field of topology, a homeomorphism or topological isomorphism or bicontinuous function is a continuous function between topological spaces that has a continuous inverse function. Homeomorphisms are the isomorphisms in the category of topological spaces—that is, they are...

between the unit interval [0, 1] and its image f([0, 1]). It can be shown any Hausdorff space
Hausdorff space
In topology and related branches of mathematics, a Hausdorff space, separated space or T2 space is a topological space in which distinct points have disjoint neighbourhoods. Of the many separation axioms that can be imposed on a topological space, the "Hausdorff condition" is the most frequently...

which is path-connected is also arc-connected. An example of a space which is path-connected but not arc-connected is provided by adding a second copy 0' of 0 to the nonnegative real numbers [0, ∞). One endows this set with a partial order
Partially ordered set
In mathematics, especially order theory, a partially ordered set formalizes and generalizes the intuitive concept of an ordering, sequencing, or arrangement of the elements of a set. A poset consists of a set together with a binary relation that indicates that, for certain pairs of elements in the...

by specifying that 0'<a for any positive number a, but leaving 0 and 0' incomparable. One then endows this set with the order topology, that is one takes the open intervals
(ab) = {x | a < x < b} and the half-open intervals [0, a) = {x | 0 ≤ x < a}, [0', a) = {x | 0' ≤ x < a} as a base
Base (topology)
In mathematics, a base B for a topological space X with topology T is a collection of open sets in T such that every open set in T can be written as a union of elements of B. We say that the base generates the topology T...

for the topology. The resulting space is a T1
T1 space
In topology and related branches of mathematics, a T1 space is a topological space in which, for every pair of distinct points, each has an open neighborhood not containing the other. An R0 space is one in which this holds for every pair of topologically distinguishable points...

space but not a Hausdorff space
Hausdorff space
In topology and related branches of mathematics, a Hausdorff space, separated space or T2 space is a topological space in which distinct points have disjoint neighbourhoods. Of the many separation axioms that can be imposed on a topological space, the "Hausdorff condition" is the most frequently...

. Clearly 0 and 0' can be connected by a path but not by an arc in this space.

## Local connectedness

A topological space is said to be locally connected
Locally connected space
In topology and other branches of mathematics, a topological space X islocally connected if every point admits a neighbourhood basis consisting entirely of open, connected sets.-Background:...

at a point
x if every neighbourhood of x contains a connected open neighbourhood. It is locally connected if it has a base
Base (topology)
In mathematics, a base B for a topological space X with topology T is a collection of open sets in T such that every open set in T can be written as a union of elements of B. We say that the base generates the topology T...

of connected sets. It can be shown that a space X is locally connected if and only if every component of every open set of X is open. The topologist's sine curve
Topologist's sine curve
In the branch of mathematics known as topology, the topologist's sine curve is a topological space with several interesting properties that make it an important textbook example....

is an example of a connected space that is not locally connected.

Similarly, a topological space is said to be if it has a base of path-connected sets.
An open subset of a locally path-connected space is connected if and only if it is path-connected.
This generalizes the earlier statement about Rn and Cn, each of which is locally path-connected. More generally, any topological manifold
Topological manifold
In mathematics, a topological manifold is a topological space which looks locally like Euclidean space in a sense defined below...

is locally path-connected.

## Theorems

• Main theorem: Let X and Y be topological spaces and let f : XY be a continuous function. If X is (path-)connected then the image
Image (mathematics)
In mathematics, an image is the subset of a function's codomain which is the output of the function on a subset of its domain. Precisely, evaluating the function at each element of a subset X of the domain produces a set called the image of X under or through the function...

f(X) is (path-)connected. This result can be considered a generalization of the intermediate value theorem
Intermediate value theorem
In mathematical analysis, the intermediate value theorem states that for each value between the least upper bound and greatest lower bound of the image of a continuous function there is at least one point in its domain that the function maps to that value....

.
• If is a family of connected subsets of a topological space X indexed by an arbitrary set such that for all , in , is nonempty, then is also connected.
• If is a nonempty family of connected subsets of a topological space X such that is nonempty, then is also connected.
• Every path-connected space is connected.
• Every locally path-connected space is locally connected.
• A locally path-connected space is path-connected if and only if it is connected.
• The closure
Closure (topology)
In mathematics, the closure of a subset S in a topological space consists of all points in S plus the limit points of S. Intuitively, these are all the points that are "near" S. A point which is in the closure of S is a point of closure of S...

of a connected subset is connected.
• The connected components are always closed
Closed set
In geometry, topology, and related branches of mathematics, a closed set is a set whose complement is an open set. In a topological space, a closed set can be defined as a set which contains all its limit points...

(but in general not open)
• The connected components of a locally connected space are also open.
• The connected components of a space are disjoint unions of the path-connected components (which in general are neither open nor closed).
• Every quotient
Quotient space
In topology and related areas of mathematics, a quotient space is, intuitively speaking, the result of identifying or "gluing together" certain points of a given space. The points to be identified are specified by an equivalence relation...

of a connected (resp. path-connected) space is connected (resp. path-connected).
• Every product
Product topology
In topology and related areas of mathematics, a product space is the cartesian product of a family of topological spaces equipped with a natural topology called the product topology...

of a family of connected (resp. path-connected) spaces is connected (resp. path-connected).
• Every open subset of a locally connected (resp. locally path-connected) space is locally connected (resp. locally path-connected).
• Every manifold
Manifold
In mathematics , a manifold is a topological space that on a small enough scale resembles the Euclidean space of a specific dimension, called the dimension of the manifold....

is locally path-connected.

## Graphs

Graphs
Graph (mathematics)
In mathematics, a graph is an abstract representation of a set of objects where some pairs of the objects are connected by links. The interconnected objects are represented by mathematical abstractions called vertices, and the links that connect some pairs of vertices are called edges...

have path connected subsets, namely those subsets for which every pair of points has a path of edges joining them.
But it is not always possible to find a topology on the set of points which induces the same connected sets. The 5-cycle graph (and any n-cycle with n>3 odd) is one such example.

As a consequence, a notion of connectedness can be formulated independently of the topology on a space. To wit, there is a category of connective spaces consisting of sets with collections of connected subsets satisfying connectivity axioms; their morphisms are those functions which map connected sets to connected sets . Topological spaces and graphs are special cases of connective spaces; indeed, the finite connective spaces are precisely the finite graphs.

However, every graph can be canonically made into a topological space, by treating vertices as points and edges as copies of the unit interval
Unit interval
In mathematics, the unit interval is the closed interval , that is, the set of all real numbers that are greater than or equal to 0 and less than or equal to 1...

(see topological graph theory#Graphs as topological spaces). Then one can show that the graph is connected (in the graph theoretical sense) if and only if it is connected as a topological space.

## Stronger forms of connectedness

There are stronger forms of connectedness for topological space
Topological space
Topological spaces are mathematical structures that allow the formal definition of concepts such as convergence, connectedness, and continuity. They appear in virtually every branch of modern mathematics and are a central unifying notion...

s, for instance:
• If there exist no two disjoint non-empty open sets in a topological space, X, X must be connected, and thus hyperconnected space
Hyperconnected space
In mathematics, a hyperconnected space is a topological space X that cannot be written as the union of two proper closed sets. The name irreducible space is preferred in algebraic geometry....

s
are also connected.
• Since a simply connected space
Simply connected space
In topology, a topological space is called simply connected if it is path-connected and every path between two points can be continuously transformed, staying within the space, into any other path while preserving the two endpoints in question .If a space is not simply connected, it is convenient...

is, by definition, also required to be path connected, any simply connected space is also connected. Note however, that if the "path connectedness" requirement is dropped from the definition of simple connectivity, a simply connected space does not need to be connected.
• Yet stronger versions of connectivity include the notion of a contractible space
Contractible space
In mathematics, a topological space X is contractible if the identity map on X is null-homotopic, i.e. if it is homotopic to some constant map. Intuitively, a contractible space is one that can be continuously shrunk to a point....

. Every contractible space is path connected and thus also connected.

In general, note that any path connected space must be connected but there exist connected spaces that are not path connected. The deleted comb space
Comb space
In mathematics, particularly topology, a comb space is a subspace of \R^2 that looks rather like a comb. The comb space has some rather interesting properties and provides interesting counterexamples. The topologist's sine curve has similar properties to the comb space...

furnishes such an example, as does the above mentioned topologist's sine curve
Topologist's sine curve
In the branch of mathematics known as topology, the topologist's sine curve is a topological space with several interesting properties that make it an important textbook example....

.

• uniformly connected space
Uniformly connected space
In topology and related areas of mathematics a uniformly connected space or Cantor connected space is a uniform space U such that every uniformly continuous function from U to a discrete uniform space is constant....

• locally connected space
Locally connected space
In topology and other branches of mathematics, a topological space X islocally connected if every point admits a neighbourhood basis consisting entirely of open, connected sets.-Background:...

• connected component (graph theory)
Connected component (graph theory)
In graph theory, a connected component of an undirected graph is a subgraph in which any two vertices are connected to each other by paths, and which is connected to no additional vertices. For example, the graph shown in the illustration on the right has three connected components...

• n-connected
N-connected
In the mathematical branch of algebraic topology, specifically homotopy theory, n-connectedness is a way to say that a space vanishes or that a map is an isomorphism "up to dimension n, in homotopy".-n-connected space:...

• Connectedness locus
Connectedness locus
In one-dimensional complex dynamics, the connectedness locus in a parameter space of polynomials or rational functions consists of those parameters for which the corresponding Julia set is connected....

• Extremally disconnected space
Extremally disconnected space
In mathematics, a topological space is termed extremally disconnected or extremely disconnected if the closure of every open set in it is open. An extremally disconnected space that is also compact and Hausdorff is sometimes called a Stonean space...