Concessions in China
Encyclopedia
Concessions in China were a group of concession territories
within China
that were governed
and occupied by foreign powers. They are frequently associated with colonialism
. Most had extraterritoriality
and were enclaves
inside key cities
that were treaty ports. Other than other minor extraterritorial regions, these concessions no longer exist. The sovereignty of the last two European territories in China, Hong Kong
and Macau
, although not concessions but rather colonies, were transferred to the government of the People's Republic of China
in 1997 and 1999, respectively.
The majority of these concessions had been granted due to the Unequal Treaties
. In each treaty, China was usually forced to open more treaty ports for trade and lease
out more territory as concession territories, if not surrendered entirely. Concessions such as Macau
, which was administrated by the Portuguese
, were settled centuries before the Unequal Treaties came about in the Ming Dynasty
.
In each city, there might have been an entire host of concessions; there were nine concessions within Tianjin
at the height of the era. Generally the foreign powers controlling the concessions were Western powers
or the Empire of Japan
. However, each foreign power usually administrated their own concessions, although occasionally several powers might agree to form a single settlement. In the case of the Shanghai International Settlement
in Shanghai
, the United Kingdom
and the United States
agreed to merge their concessions together.
In these concessions, the citizens of each foreign power were given the right to freely inhabit, trade, convert
and travel. They developed their own cultures distinct from the rest of China, because each administration would try to make their concession look "like home". Churches, public house
s, and various other western commercial institutions sprung up in the concessions. In the case of Japan
ese concessions, its own traditions and language naturally flourished. Ironically, some of these concessions eventually had more advanced architecture of each originating culture than most cities back in the countries of the foreign powers.
Chinese were originally forbidden to live inside most of the concessions, but to improve commercial activity and services, most concessions eventually permitted Chinese by the 1860s, but treated them like second-class citizen
s. They were literally second-class citizens, however, since they were not citizens of the foreign state administering the concession. They eventually became the majority of the residents inside the concessions. Non-Chinese in the concessions were generally subject to consular
law, and some of these laws applied to the Chinese residents.
Each concession also had its own police
force, and had different legal jurisdiction
s and their own separate laws. Thus, an activity might be legal in one concession but illegal in another.
Many of the concessions even maintained their own military
garrison
and standing army
. Military and police forces of the Chinese government were sometimes present. Some police forces allowed Chinese; others did not. (At the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War
, the standing army in Japanese concessions would be even used against the Chinese forces.)
In major cities like Shanghai and Tianjin, having so many jurisdictions in one area meant that criminals could commit a crime
in one jurisdiction and easily escape to another. This especially became a problem in the period of Republican China
during the early 20th century, with the rise of Chinese warlordism
and the collapse of central authority. Crime often flourished, especially organised crime. Some efforts were made by the foreign powers to have the different police forces cooperate and work together, but not with huge success. The image of gangster
s and Triads conjured when the major cities and concessions of the era were mentioned is often precisely due to the extraterritoriality within the cities.
Concession (territory)
In international law, a concession is a territory within a country that is administered by an entity other than the state which holds sovereignty over it. This is usually a colonizing power, or at least mandated by one, as in the case of colonial chartered companies.Usually, it is conceded, that...
within China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
that were governed
Government
Government refers to the legislators, administrators, and arbitrators in the administrative bureaucracy who control a state at a given time, and to the system of government by which they are organized...
and occupied by foreign powers. They are frequently associated with colonialism
Colonialism
Colonialism is the establishment, maintenance, acquisition and expansion of colonies in one territory by people from another territory. It is a process whereby the metropole claims sovereignty over the colony and the social structure, government, and economics of the colony are changed by...
. Most had extraterritoriality
Extraterritoriality
Extraterritoriality is the state of being exempt from the jurisdiction of local law, usually as the result of diplomatic negotiations. Extraterritoriality can also be applied to physical places, such as military bases of foreign countries, or offices of the United Nations...
and were enclaves
Enclave and exclave
In political geography, an enclave is a territory whose geographical boundaries lie entirely within the boundaries of another territory.An exclave, on the other hand, is a territory legally or politically attached to another territory with which it is not physically contiguous.These are two...
inside key cities
City
A city is a relatively large and permanent settlement. Although there is no agreement on how a city is distinguished from a town within general English language meanings, many cities have a particular administrative, legal, or historical status based on local law.For example, in the U.S...
that were treaty ports. Other than other minor extraterritorial regions, these concessions no longer exist. The sovereignty of the last two European territories in China, Hong Kong
Hong Kong
Hong Kong is one of two Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China , the other being Macau. A city-state situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South China Sea, it is renowned for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour...
and Macau
Macau
Macau , also spelled Macao , is, along with Hong Kong, one of the two special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China...
, although not concessions but rather colonies, were transferred to the government of the People's Republic of China
Government of the People's Republic of China
All power within the government of the People's Republic of China is divided among three bodies: the People's Republic of China, State Council, and the People's Liberation Army . This article is concerned with the formal structure of the state, its departments and their responsibilities...
in 1997 and 1999, respectively.
The majority of these concessions had been granted due to the Unequal Treaties
Unequal Treaties
“Unequal treaty” is a term used in specific reference to a number of treaties imposed by Western powers, during the 19th and early 20th centuries, on Qing Dynasty China and late Tokugawa Japan...
. In each treaty, China was usually forced to open more treaty ports for trade and lease
Lease
A lease is a contractual arrangement calling for the lessee to pay the lessor for use of an asset. A rental agreement is a lease in which the asset is tangible property...
out more territory as concession territories, if not surrendered entirely. Concessions such as Macau
Macau
Macau , also spelled Macao , is, along with Hong Kong, one of the two special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China...
, which was administrated by the Portuguese
Portugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
, were settled centuries before the Unequal Treaties came about in the Ming Dynasty
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
.
In each city, there might have been an entire host of concessions; there were nine concessions within Tianjin
Concessions in Tianjin
The Concessions in Tianjin were concession territories ceded by the Chinese imperial Qing Dynasty to the great powers in Tianjin, also known as Tientsin or Tien-Tsin.-General context:...
at the height of the era. Generally the foreign powers controlling the concessions were Western powers
Western world
The Western world, also known as the West and the Occident , is a term referring to the countries of Western Europe , the countries of the Americas, as well all countries of Northern and Central Europe, Australia and New Zealand...
or the Empire of Japan
Empire of Japan
The Empire of Japan is the name of the state of Japan that existed from the Meiji Restoration on 3 January 1868 to the enactment of the post-World War II Constitution of...
. However, each foreign power usually administrated their own concessions, although occasionally several powers might agree to form a single settlement. In the case of the Shanghai International Settlement
Shanghai International Settlement
The Shanghai International Settlement began originally as a purely British settlement. It was one of the original five treaty ports which were established under the terms of the Treaty of Nanking at the end of the first opium war in the year 1842...
in Shanghai
Shanghai
Shanghai is the largest city by population in China and the largest city proper in the world. It is one of the four province-level municipalities in the People's Republic of China, with a total population of over 23 million as of 2010...
, the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
and the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
agreed to merge their concessions together.
In these concessions, the citizens of each foreign power were given the right to freely inhabit, trade, convert
Missionary
A missionary is a member of a religious group sent into an area to do evangelism or ministries of service, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care and economic development. The word "mission" originates from 1598 when the Jesuits sent members abroad, derived from the Latin...
and travel. They developed their own cultures distinct from the rest of China, because each administration would try to make their concession look "like home". Churches, public house
Public house
A public house, informally known as a pub, is a drinking establishment fundamental to the culture of Britain, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand. There are approximately 53,500 public houses in the United Kingdom. This number has been declining every year, so that nearly half of the smaller...
s, and various other western commercial institutions sprung up in the concessions. In the case of Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
ese concessions, its own traditions and language naturally flourished. Ironically, some of these concessions eventually had more advanced architecture of each originating culture than most cities back in the countries of the foreign powers.
Chinese were originally forbidden to live inside most of the concessions, but to improve commercial activity and services, most concessions eventually permitted Chinese by the 1860s, but treated them like second-class citizen
Second-class citizen
Second-class citizen is an informal term used to describe a person who is systematically discriminated against within a state or other political jurisdiction, despite their nominal status as a citizen or legal resident there...
s. They were literally second-class citizens, however, since they were not citizens of the foreign state administering the concession. They eventually became the majority of the residents inside the concessions. Non-Chinese in the concessions were generally subject to consular
Consul (representative)
The political title Consul is used for the official representatives of the government of one state in the territory of another, normally acting to assist and protect the citizens of the consul's own country, and to facilitate trade and friendship between the peoples of the two countries...
law, and some of these laws applied to the Chinese residents.
Each concession also had its own police
Police
The police is a personification of the state designated to put in practice the enforced law, protect property and reduce civil disorder in civilian matters. Their powers include the legitimized use of force...
force, and had different legal jurisdiction
Jurisdiction
Jurisdiction is the practical authority granted to a formally constituted legal body or to a political leader to deal with and make pronouncements on legal matters and, by implication, to administer justice within a defined area of responsibility...
s and their own separate laws. Thus, an activity might be legal in one concession but illegal in another.
Many of the concessions even maintained their own military
Military
A military is an organization authorized by its greater society to use lethal force, usually including use of weapons, in defending its country by combating actual or perceived threats. The military may have additional functions of use to its greater society, such as advancing a political agenda e.g...
garrison
Garrison
Garrison is the collective term for a body of troops stationed in a particular location, originally to guard it, but now often simply using it as a home base....
and standing army
Standing army
A standing army is a professional permanent army. It is composed of full-time career soldiers and is not disbanded during times of peace. It differs from army reserves, who are activated only during wars or natural disasters...
. Military and police forces of the Chinese government were sometimes present. Some police forces allowed Chinese; others did not. (At the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War
Second Sino-Japanese War
The Second Sino-Japanese War was a military conflict fought primarily between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan. From 1937 to 1941, China fought Japan with some economic help from Germany , the Soviet Union and the United States...
, the standing army in Japanese concessions would be even used against the Chinese forces.)
In major cities like Shanghai and Tianjin, having so many jurisdictions in one area meant that criminals could commit a crime
Crime
Crime is the breach of rules or laws for which some governing authority can ultimately prescribe a conviction...
in one jurisdiction and easily escape to another. This especially became a problem in the period of Republican China
History of the Republic of China
The History of the Republic of China begins after the Qing Dynasty in 1912, when the formation of the Republic of China put an end to over two thousand years of Imperial rule. The Qing Dynasty, also known as the Manchu Dynasty, ruled from 1644 to 1912...
during the early 20th century, with the rise of Chinese warlordism
Warlord era
The Chinese Warlord Era was the period in the history of the Republic of China, from 1916 to 1928, when the country was divided among military cliques, a division that continued until the fall of the Nationalist government in the mainland China regions of Sichuan, Shanxi, Qinghai, Ningxia,...
and the collapse of central authority. Crime often flourished, especially organised crime. Some efforts were made by the foreign powers to have the different police forces cooperate and work together, but not with huge success. The image of gangster
Gangster
A gangster is a criminal who is a member of a gang. Some gangs are considered to be part of organized crime. Gangsters are also called mobsters, a term derived from mob and the suffix -ster....
s and Triads conjured when the major cities and concessions of the era were mentioned is often precisely due to the extraterritoriality within the cities.