Coastal development hazards
Encyclopedia
A coastal development hazard can be defined as the likelihood of an event or incident occurring multiplied by the seriousness of the event or incident if it occurred. The seriousness is controlled by how vulnerable the adversely affected party was to the hazard. Hazard likelihood and vulnerability interact to create this risk.
As coasts become more developed, the vulnerability component of the equation increases as there is more value at risk to the hazard. The likelihood component of the equation also increases in terms of there being more value on the coast so a higher chance of hazardous situation occurring. Fundamentally humans create hazards with their presence. In a coastal example, erosion
is a process that happens naturally on the Canterbury Bight
as a part of the coastal geomorphology
of the area and strong long shore currents. This process becomes a hazard when humans interact with that coastal environment by developing it and creating value in that area.
In Burton 1978 ‘The Environment as Hazard’ a natural hazard is defined as the release of energy
or materials that threaten humans or what they value. In a coastal context these hazards vary temporally and spatially from a rare, sudden, massive release of energy and materials such as a major storm
event or tsunami
, to the continual chronic release of energy and materials such long-term coastal erosion
or sea-level rise. It is this type coastal hazard, specifically around erosion and attributes surrounding erosion that this article will focus on.
is increasing. It has been stated that there has been over a 35% increase in the population
of people
living on the coasts since 1995. The average density
of people in coastal regions is 3 times higher than the global average density. Historically city
development especially large cities were based on coasts due to the economic benefits of the ports
. In 1950 there were only 2 megacities (cities with greater than 8 million people) in the coastal zone, London
and New York
. By the mid-nineties there were 13. Although coastal areas globally have shown population growth and increases in density, very few in-depth quantitative global studies of population have been carried out, especially in terms of distribution across specific environs, like coasts. The spatial distribution and accuracy of global data must be significantly improved before realistic quantitative assessments of the global impacts of coastal hazards can be made. As currently much of the data is collected and analysed in the aftermath of disasters.
Historic studies have put estimates of the number of deaths due to cyclones over the last 200 years around the Bay of Bengal
exceeding 1.3 million. However in developed countries, as can be expected, the death toll is significantly lower but the economic losses due to coastal hazards are increasing. The United States of America (USA) for example had major losses in Hurricane Andrew, which hit Florida
and Louisiana
in 1992.
This rushing to the coast is exhibited in property value. A study by Bourassa et al. (2004) found in Auckland
New Zealand
, wide sea views contributed on average an additional 59% to the value of a waterfront property. This effect diminished rapidly the further from the property was from the coast. In another study it was found that moving 150m away from the Gulf of Mexico
lowered property values by 36%.
Insurance
premiums in coastal hazard areas are an inconsequential determinant of property values, given the significant amenity values provided by the coast in terms of views and local recreation
. Sea-level rise, coastal erosion, and the exacerbating interaction between these two natural
phenomena are likely to pose a significant threat for the loss of capital assets in coastal areas in the future. It is hard to say if the vulnerability to coastal hazards by those residing there is perceived yet dominated by the amenity value of coasts or simply ignored.
, gently sloping beaches. Increased wave energy in storms leads to the removal of foreshore, berm
and dune
sediments. These displaced sediments are then deposited as near shore
sand bars and act to dampen the wave energy lessoning the amount of sediment that is being eroded from the coast. When wave energies decrease post storm events, the sediments from these newly deposited near shore bars are returned to the upper beach, rebuilding the berm. This self-correcting cycle is an active balance between wave energies and fine sediment deposition
. This store of sediment being available for erosion in storms and re-depositing when the event has subsided is an important natural buffer mechanism against protecting the mainland
from erosion and minimising coastal retreat.
, New Zealand, storm events in 1978 and 2001 caused significant erosion of the New Brighton
and Waimairi sand beaches. In the 1978 storm event houses on the seaward side of the New Brighton Spit suffered from undercutting as the dune sediment in which they were built on was eroded by high wave energy. This same storm event caused similar erosion damage to houses built on the upper dunes in Raumati
, on the west coast of the North Island
, New Zealand. Bulldozing and bulk removal of sand from protective coastal dunes is therefore an extremely hazardous activity, and one that has been widely carried out in New Zealand in order to form a surface on which to build on to obtain sea views.
value of developed assets, land and infrastructure
that are at risk. To date, erosion on the Canterbury Bight has led to the loss of agricultural land
, threatened valuable infrastructure including holiday
settlements, and reduced coastal lagoons and wetlands.
Historically, erosion on the Canterbury Bight was a natural process, but has now been exacerbated by human intervention. The Waitaki River
was the dominant source of sediments for the beaches between Oamaru
and Timaru
. Since the damming of the Waitaki River in 1935 erosion of the coastal cliffs has become the primary source of sediment in the north flowing current moving up the coast of South
Canterbury
.
of seawalls, revetments and groynes in often futile attempts to prevent storm erosion hazards to unsuitably located assets and infrastructure on coasts. These engineered methods are commonly ineffective and frequently actually magnify the hazard or just move the hazard down coast. In Porthcawl
, South Wales
, a seawall constructed to stop erosion in 1887 was replaced in 1906, 1934 and finally in 1984 when the beach was paved as each prior structure was undermined by further erosion. The loss of aesthetics
due to the lack of a sand beach resulted in tourists utilising alternative beaches. Therefore incurring an even greater economic loss on top of the cost of the engineering.
planting and sand
fencing
, or with better planning
by developing away from or well behind the dune structures not on them. On the New Brighton Spit the spread of marram grass
(Ammophila arenaria) has resulted in effective dune stabilisation in areas. However this invasive
exotic
species
has mostly replaced indigenous species like pingao
(Desmoschoenus spiralis) meaning that although the stability of the coastal area has gained, the historic, native
cultural values of the area have suffered.
, due to cost this is a solution that has been used primarily for the benefit of the tourism industry
. As a result of erosion Miami Beach had almost no stored sediment left by the mid 1970s, consequently, visitor numbers declined and development of the area decreased. A beach nourishment program was setup resulting in an influx
of development and infrastructure in the late 1970s. Miami Beach was rejuvenated to such an extent that annual revenue
from foreign tourists alone is $2.4 billion, compared to the $52 million cost of the 20-year nourishment project. Tax
revenue from tourists who visit Miami Beach alone more than covers the cost of beach nourishment projects across the nation
. Using the capitalised annual cost of the project, for every $1 that has been invested annually on the nourishment, Miami Beach has received almost $500 annually in foreign exchange.
As coasts become more developed, the vulnerability component of the equation increases as there is more value at risk to the hazard. The likelihood component of the equation also increases in terms of there being more value on the coast so a higher chance of hazardous situation occurring. Fundamentally humans create hazards with their presence. In a coastal example, erosion
Erosion
Erosion is when materials are removed from the surface and changed into something else. It only works by hydraulic actions and transport of solids in the natural environment, and leads to the deposition of these materials elsewhere...
is a process that happens naturally on the Canterbury Bight
Canterbury Bight
Canterbury Bight is a 135 km stretch of coastline between Dashing Rocks and the southern side of Banks Peninsula on the eastern side of the South Island, New Zealand. The bight faces southeast, which exposes it to high-energy storm waves originating in the Pacific Ocean...
as a part of the coastal geomorphology
Geomorphology
Geomorphology is the scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape them...
of the area and strong long shore currents. This process becomes a hazard when humans interact with that coastal environment by developing it and creating value in that area.
In Burton 1978 ‘The Environment as Hazard’ a natural hazard is defined as the release of energy
Energy
In physics, energy is an indirectly observed quantity. It is often understood as the ability a physical system has to do work on other physical systems...
or materials that threaten humans or what they value. In a coastal context these hazards vary temporally and spatially from a rare, sudden, massive release of energy and materials such as a major storm
Storm
A storm is any disturbed state of an astronomical body's atmosphere, especially affecting its surface, and strongly implying severe weather...
event or tsunami
Tsunami
A tsunami is a series of water waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water, typically an ocean or a large lake...
, to the continual chronic release of energy and materials such long-term coastal erosion
Coastal erosion
Coastal erosion is the wearing away of land and the removal of beach or dune sediments by wave action, tidal currents, wave currents, or drainage...
or sea-level rise. It is this type coastal hazard, specifically around erosion and attributes surrounding erosion that this article will focus on.
Coastal population growth and development on coasts
Globally the number of people living on the coastCoast
A coastline or seashore is the area where land meets the sea or ocean. A precise line that can be called a coastline cannot be determined due to the dynamic nature of tides. The term "coastal zone" can be used instead, which is a spatial zone where interaction of the sea and land processes occurs...
is increasing. It has been stated that there has been over a 35% increase in the population
Population
A population is all the organisms that both belong to the same group or species and live in the same geographical area. The area that is used to define a sexual population is such that inter-breeding is possible between any pair within the area and more probable than cross-breeding with individuals...
of people
People
People is a plurality of human beings or other beings possessing enough qualities constituting personhood. It has two usages:* as the plural of person or a group of people People is a plurality of human beings or other beings possessing enough qualities constituting personhood. It has two usages:*...
living on the coasts since 1995. The average density
Density
The mass density or density of a material is defined as its mass per unit volume. The symbol most often used for density is ρ . In some cases , density is also defined as its weight per unit volume; although, this quantity is more properly called specific weight...
of people in coastal regions is 3 times higher than the global average density. Historically city
City
A city is a relatively large and permanent settlement. Although there is no agreement on how a city is distinguished from a town within general English language meanings, many cities have a particular administrative, legal, or historical status based on local law.For example, in the U.S...
development especially large cities were based on coasts due to the economic benefits of the ports
Port
A port is a location on a coast or shore containing one or more harbors where ships can dock and transfer people or cargo to or from land....
. In 1950 there were only 2 megacities (cities with greater than 8 million people) in the coastal zone, London
London
London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...
and New York
New York
New York is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
. By the mid-nineties there were 13. Although coastal areas globally have shown population growth and increases in density, very few in-depth quantitative global studies of population have been carried out, especially in terms of distribution across specific environs, like coasts. The spatial distribution and accuracy of global data must be significantly improved before realistic quantitative assessments of the global impacts of coastal hazards can be made. As currently much of the data is collected and analysed in the aftermath of disasters.
Historic studies have put estimates of the number of deaths due to cyclones over the last 200 years around the Bay of Bengal
Bay of Bengal
The Bay of Bengal , the largest bay in the world, forms the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean. It resembles a triangle in shape, and is bordered mostly by the Eastern Coast of India, southern coast of Bangladesh and Sri Lanka to the west and Burma and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands to the...
exceeding 1.3 million. However in developed countries, as can be expected, the death toll is significantly lower but the economic losses due to coastal hazards are increasing. The United States of America (USA) for example had major losses in Hurricane Andrew, which hit Florida
Florida
Florida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...
and Louisiana
Louisiana
Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States of America. Its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the only state in the U.S. with political subdivisions termed parishes, which are local governments equivalent to counties...
in 1992.
This rushing to the coast is exhibited in property value. A study by Bourassa et al. (2004) found in Auckland
Auckland
The Auckland metropolitan area , in the North Island of New Zealand, is the largest and most populous urban area in the country with residents, percent of the country's population. Auckland also has the largest Polynesian population of any city in the world...
New Zealand
New Zealand
New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...
, wide sea views contributed on average an additional 59% to the value of a waterfront property. This effect diminished rapidly the further from the property was from the coast. In another study it was found that moving 150m away from the Gulf of Mexico
Gulf of Mexico
The Gulf of Mexico is a partially landlocked ocean basin largely surrounded by the North American continent and the island of Cuba. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States, on the southwest and south by Mexico, and on the southeast by Cuba. In...
lowered property values by 36%.
Insurance
Insurance
In law and economics, insurance is a form of risk management primarily used to hedge against the risk of a contingent, uncertain loss. Insurance is defined as the equitable transfer of the risk of a loss, from one entity to another, in exchange for payment. An insurer is a company selling the...
premiums in coastal hazard areas are an inconsequential determinant of property values, given the significant amenity values provided by the coast in terms of views and local recreation
Recreation
Recreation is an activity of leisure, leisure being discretionary time. The "need to do something for recreation" is an essential element of human biology and psychology. Recreational activities are often done for enjoyment, amusement, or pleasure and are considered to be "fun"...
. Sea-level rise, coastal erosion, and the exacerbating interaction between these two natural
Natural
Natural is an adjective that refers to Nature.Natural may refer too:In science and mathematics:* Natural transformation, category theory in mathematics* Natural foods...
phenomena are likely to pose a significant threat for the loss of capital assets in coastal areas in the future. It is hard to say if the vulnerability to coastal hazards by those residing there is perceived yet dominated by the amenity value of coasts or simply ignored.
Coastal erosion hazards
Coastal erosion is one of the most significant hazards associated with the coast. Not in terms of a rare massive release of energy or material resulting in loss of life, as is associated with tsunami and cyclones, but in terms of a continual chronic release that forms a threat to infrastructure, capital assets and property.Beach erosion process
Storm induced large erosion events are a part of the natural evolutionary process of fine sedimentSediment
Sediment is naturally occurring material that is broken down by processes of weathering and erosion, and is subsequently transported by the action of fluids such as wind, water, or ice, and/or by the force of gravity acting on the particle itself....
, gently sloping beaches. Increased wave energy in storms leads to the removal of foreshore, berm
Berm
A berm is a level space, shelf, or raised barrier separating two areas. Berm originates in the Middle Dutch and German berme and came into usage in English via French.- History :...
and dune
Dune
In physical geography, a dune is a hill of sand built by wind. Dunes occur in different forms and sizes, formed by interaction with the wind. Most kinds of dunes are longer on the windward side where the sand is pushed up the dune and have a shorter "slip face" in the lee of the wind...
sediments. These displaced sediments are then deposited as near shore
Shore
A shore or shoreline is the fringe of land at the edge of a large body of water, such as an ocean, sea, or lake. In Physical Oceanography a shore is the wider fringe that is geologically modified by the action of the body of water past and present, while the beach is at the edge of the shore,...
sand bars and act to dampen the wave energy lessoning the amount of sediment that is being eroded from the coast. When wave energies decrease post storm events, the sediments from these newly deposited near shore bars are returned to the upper beach, rebuilding the berm. This self-correcting cycle is an active balance between wave energies and fine sediment deposition
Deposition (geology)
Deposition is the geological process by which material is added to a landform or land mass. Fluids such as wind and water, as well as sediment flowing via gravity, transport previously eroded sediment, which, at the loss of enough kinetic energy in the fluid, is deposited, building up layers of...
. This store of sediment being available for erosion in storms and re-depositing when the event has subsided is an important natural buffer mechanism against protecting the mainland
Mainland
Mainland is a name given to a large landmass in a region , or to the largest of a group of islands in an archipelago. Sometimes its residents are called "Mainlanders"...
from erosion and minimising coastal retreat.
Dune destruction
Sand dunes are very dynamic fragile structures that act as stores of sediment used to carry out the coastal processes mentioned above. This removal of the upper beach sediments is important from a hazard perspective as this is the area of the coast that is often utilised for property development due to the high prices sea front properties with a view can achieve. In Pegasus BayPegasus Bay
Pegasus Bay is on the east coast of the South Island of New Zealand.-Location:The bay has a sandy beach and runs from Banks Peninsula to the Waipara River mouth...
, New Zealand, storm events in 1978 and 2001 caused significant erosion of the New Brighton
New Brighton, New Zealand
New Brighton is a coastal suburb of Christchurch, New Zealand, about to the east of the city centre.-Naming:The naming of New Brighton was apparently done on a 'spur of moment' decision by William Fee, an early settler of the area...
and Waimairi sand beaches. In the 1978 storm event houses on the seaward side of the New Brighton Spit suffered from undercutting as the dune sediment in which they were built on was eroded by high wave energy. This same storm event caused similar erosion damage to houses built on the upper dunes in Raumati
Raumati
Raumati collectively refers to two neighbouring places on the Kapiti Coast of New Zealand's North Island. They are located 50-60 km north-east of Wellington, and immediately to the south-west of the larger town of Paraparaumu. The Maungakotukutuku area is located immediately behind Raumati...
, on the west coast of the North Island
North Island
The North Island is one of the two main islands of New Zealand, separated from the much less populous South Island by Cook Strait. The island is in area, making it the world's 14th-largest island...
, New Zealand. Bulldozing and bulk removal of sand from protective coastal dunes is therefore an extremely hazardous activity, and one that has been widely carried out in New Zealand in order to form a surface on which to build on to obtain sea views.
Canterbury bight
In Kirk (2001) coastal erosion on the Canterbury bight, South Canterbury was said to have reached up to 8 m per year. This coastal process could be measured in more ways than one, the afore mentioned distance of coastal retreat or the decreased dollarDollar
The dollar is the name of the official currency of many countries, including Australia, Belize, Canada, Ecuador, El Salvador, Hong Kong, New Zealand, Singapore, Taiwan, and the United States.-Etymology:...
value of developed assets, land and infrastructure
Infrastructure
Infrastructure is basic physical and organizational structures needed for the operation of a society or enterprise, or the services and facilities necessary for an economy to function...
that are at risk. To date, erosion on the Canterbury Bight has led to the loss of agricultural land
Agricultural land
Agricultural land denotes the land suitable for agricultural production, both crops and livestock. It is one of the main resources in agriculture...
, threatened valuable infrastructure including holiday
Holiday
A Holiday is a day designated as having special significance for which individuals, a government, or a religious group have deemed that observance is warranted. It is generally an official or unofficial observance of religious, national, or cultural significance, often accompanied by celebrations...
settlements, and reduced coastal lagoons and wetlands.
Historically, erosion on the Canterbury Bight was a natural process, but has now been exacerbated by human intervention. The Waitaki River
Waitaki River
The Waitaki River is a large river in the South Island of New Zealand, some 110 km long. It is the major river of the Mackenzie Basin.It is a braided river which flows through Lake Benmore, Lake Aviemore and Lake Waitaki. These are ultimately fed by three large glacial lakes, Pukaki, Tekapo,...
was the dominant source of sediments for the beaches between Oamaru
Oamaru
Oamaru , the largest town in North Otago, in the South Island of New Zealand, is the main town in the Waitaki District. It is 80 kilometres south of Timaru and 120 kilometres north of Dunedin, on the Pacific coast, and State Highway 1 and the railway Main South Line connects it to both...
and Timaru
Timaru
TimaruUrban AreaPopulation:27,200Extent:Former Timaru City CouncilTerritorial AuthorityName:Timaru District CouncilPopulation:42,867 Land area:2,736.54 km² Mayor:Janie AnnearWebsite:...
. Since the damming of the Waitaki River in 1935 erosion of the coastal cliffs has become the primary source of sediment in the north flowing current moving up the coast of South
South
South is a noun, adjective, or adverb indicating direction or geography.South is one of the four cardinal directions or compass points. It is the opposite of north and is perpendicular to east and west.By convention, the bottom side of a map is south....
Canterbury
Canterbury
Canterbury is a historic English cathedral city, which lies at the heart of the City of Canterbury, a district of Kent in South East England. It lies on the River Stour....
.
Engineered structures
This destruction of sand dunes is often then mitigated with constructionConstruction
In the fields of architecture and civil engineering, construction is a process that consists of the building or assembling of infrastructure. Far from being a single activity, large scale construction is a feat of human multitasking...
of seawalls, revetments and groynes in often futile attempts to prevent storm erosion hazards to unsuitably located assets and infrastructure on coasts. These engineered methods are commonly ineffective and frequently actually magnify the hazard or just move the hazard down coast. In Porthcawl
Porthcawl
Porthcawl is a town on the south coast of Wales in the county borough of Bridgend, 25 miles west of the capital city, Cardiff and 19 miles southeast of Swansea...
, South Wales
South Wales
South Wales is an area of Wales bordered by England and the Bristol Channel to the east and south, and Mid Wales and West Wales to the north and west. The most densely populated region in the south-west of the United Kingdom, it is home to around 2.1 million people and includes the capital city of...
, a seawall constructed to stop erosion in 1887 was replaced in 1906, 1934 and finally in 1984 when the beach was paved as each prior structure was undermined by further erosion. The loss of aesthetics
Aesthetics
Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of beauty, art, and taste, and with the creation and appreciation of beauty. It is more scientifically defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste...
due to the lack of a sand beach resulted in tourists utilising alternative beaches. Therefore incurring an even greater economic loss on top of the cost of the engineering.
Restorative dune planting
The alternative to hard engineering measures is sand dune conservation. This involves protecting the sand dunes and allowing the natural buffering processes to occur. Dune protection and conservation can be facilitated in a number of ways, actively with duneDune
In physical geography, a dune is a hill of sand built by wind. Dunes occur in different forms and sizes, formed by interaction with the wind. Most kinds of dunes are longer on the windward side where the sand is pushed up the dune and have a shorter "slip face" in the lee of the wind...
planting and sand
Sand
Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles.The composition of sand is highly variable, depending on the local rock sources and conditions, but the most common constituent of sand in inland continental settings and non-tropical coastal...
fencing
Fencing
Fencing, which is also known as modern fencing to distinguish it from historical fencing, is a family of combat sports using bladed weapons.Fencing is one of four sports which have been featured at every one of the modern Olympic Games...
, or with better planning
Planning
Planning in organizations and public policy is both the organizational process of creating and maintaining a plan; and the psychological process of thinking about the activities required to create a desired goal on some scale. As such, it is a fundamental property of intelligent behavior...
by developing away from or well behind the dune structures not on them. On the New Brighton Spit the spread of marram grass
Marram grass
Ammophila is a genus consisting of two or three very similar species of grasses; common names for these grasses include Marram Grass, Bent Grass, and Beachgrass...
(Ammophila arenaria) has resulted in effective dune stabilisation in areas. However this invasive
Invasive species
"Invasive species", or invasive exotics, is a nomenclature term and categorization phrase used for flora and fauna, and for specific restoration-preservation processes in native habitats, with several definitions....
exotic
Introduced species
An introduced species — or neozoon, alien, exotic, non-indigenous, or non-native species, or simply an introduction, is a species living outside its indigenous or native distributional range, and has arrived in an ecosystem or plant community by human activity, either deliberate or accidental...
species
Species
In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are...
has mostly replaced indigenous species like pingao
Pingao
Pingao, Ficinia spiralis, also known as golden sand sedge is a coastal sedge endemic to New Zealand . Originally widespread, it has suffered severely from competition with introduced marram grass and animal grazing and now has only a patchy distribution.Leaves from this plant are used by Maori in...
(Desmoschoenus spiralis) meaning that although the stability of the coastal area has gained, the historic, native
Indigenous peoples
Indigenous peoples are ethnic groups that are defined as indigenous according to one of the various definitions of the term, there is no universally accepted definition but most of which carry connotations of being the "original inhabitants" of a territory....
cultural values of the area have suffered.
Beach nourishment
A further soft-engineering method for protecting the shoreline is beach nourishmentBeach nourishment
Beach nourishment— also referred to as beach replenishment—describes a process by which sediment lost through longshore drift or erosion is replaced from sources outside of the eroding beach...
, due to cost this is a solution that has been used primarily for the benefit of the tourism industry
Industry
Industry refers to the production of an economic good or service within an economy.-Industrial sectors:There are four key industrial economic sectors: the primary sector, largely raw material extraction industries such as mining and farming; the secondary sector, involving refining, construction,...
. As a result of erosion Miami Beach had almost no stored sediment left by the mid 1970s, consequently, visitor numbers declined and development of the area decreased. A beach nourishment program was setup resulting in an influx
Influx
Influx is the first album from Chicago rock band Janus, issued through Mirror Records in 1998 with 12 tracks. The album has a sound similar to bands like The Smashing Pumpkins, Tool and Soundgarden.- Track listing :# Average Day# Cloud Nine...
of development and infrastructure in the late 1970s. Miami Beach was rejuvenated to such an extent that annual revenue
Revenue
In business, revenue is income that a company receives from its normal business activities, usually from the sale of goods and services to customers. In many countries, such as the United Kingdom, revenue is referred to as turnover....
from foreign tourists alone is $2.4 billion, compared to the $52 million cost of the 20-year nourishment project. Tax
Tax
To tax is to impose a financial charge or other levy upon a taxpayer by a state or the functional equivalent of a state such that failure to pay is punishable by law. Taxes are also imposed by many subnational entities...
revenue from tourists who visit Miami Beach alone more than covers the cost of beach nourishment projects across the nation
Nation
A nation may refer to a community of people who share a common language, culture, ethnicity, descent, and/or history. In this definition, a nation has no physical borders. However, it can also refer to people who share a common territory and government irrespective of their ethnic make-up...
. Using the capitalised annual cost of the project, for every $1 that has been invested annually on the nourishment, Miami Beach has received almost $500 annually in foreign exchange.
See also
- Human Impacts on Coasts
- Sea level riseCurrent sea level riseCurrent sea level rise potentially impacts human populations and the wider natural environment . Global average sea level rose at an average rate of around 1.8 mm per year over 1961 to 2003 and at an average rate of about 3.1 mm per year from 1993 to 2003...
- ErosionErosionErosion is when materials are removed from the surface and changed into something else. It only works by hydraulic actions and transport of solids in the natural environment, and leads to the deposition of these materials elsewhere...
- Global populationWorld populationThe world population is the total number of living humans on the planet Earth. As of today, it is estimated to be billion by the United States Census Bureau...
- Natural hazardNatural hazardA natural hazard is a threat of a naturally occurring event that will have a negative effect on people or the environment. Many natural hazards are interrelated, e.g. earthquakes can cause tsunamis and drought can lead directly to famine. It is possible that some natural hazards are...
- Sand Dunes
- Dune RestorationSand dune stabilizationSand dunes are common features of shoreline and desert environments. Dunes provide habitat for highly specialized plants and animals, including rare and endangered species. They can protect beaches from erosion and recruit sand to eroded beaches. Dunes are threatened by human activity, both...
- Coastal sediment supplyCoastal sediment supplyCoastal sediment supply is the transport of sediment to the beach environment by both fluvial and aeolian transport. While aeolian transport plays a role in the overall sedimentary budget for the coastal environment, it is paled in comparison to the fluvial supply which makes up 95% of sediment...
- Hard EngineeringHard engineeringIn civil engineering of shorelines, hard engineering is generally defined as controlled disruption of natural processes by using man-made structures.-Examples:...
- Soft EngineeringSoft engineeringIn civil engineering of shorelines, soft engineering is the use of ecological principles and practices to reduce erosion and achieve the stabilization and safety of shorelines and the area surrounding rivers, while enhancing habitat, improving aesthetics, and saving money...
- Coastal ManagementCoastal managementIn some jurisdictions the terms sea defense and coastal protection are used to mean, respectively, defense against flooding and erosion...
- ICZMIntegrated coastal zone managementIntegrated coastal zone management or Integrated coastal management is a process for the management of the coast using an integrated approach, regarding all aspects of the coastal zone, including geographical and political boundaries, in an attempt to achieve sustainability.This concept was born...
- Beach nourishmentBeach nourishmentBeach nourishment— also referred to as beach replenishment—describes a process by which sediment lost through longshore drift or erosion is replaced from sources outside of the eroding beach...