Coalition of Essential Schools
Encyclopedia
The Coalition of Essential Schools (CES) is an organization created to further a type of whole-school reform originally envisioned by founder Ted Sizer
Ted Sizer
Theodore Ryland Sizer was a leader of educational reform in the United States, the founder of the Essential school movement and was known for challenging longstanding practices and assumptions about the functioning of American secondary schools...

 in his book, Horace's Compromise. CES began in 1984 with twelve schools; it currently has 600 formal members.

Horace's Compromise

Horace's Compromise consists of Sizer's reflection on a five-year Study of High Schools in which a team of investigators toured high school
High school
High school is a term used in parts of the English speaking world to describe institutions which provide all or part of secondary education. The term is often incorporated into the name of such institutions....

s of various kinds (differing demographic composition, rural and urban, public, private, and parochial), interviewed teacher
Teacher
A teacher or schoolteacher is a person who provides education for pupils and students . The role of teacher is often formal and ongoing, carried out at a school or other place of formal education. In many countries, a person who wishes to become a teacher must first obtain specified professional...

s, students, and administrators
Academic administration
An academic administration is a branch of university or college employees responsible for the maintenance and supervision of the institution and separate from the faculty or academics, although some personnel may have joint responsibilities...

, and spent considerable time observing classroom
Classroom
A classroom is a room in which teaching or learning activities can take place. Classrooms are found in educational institutions of all kinds, including public and private schools, corporations, and religious and humanitarian organizations...

s and, especially, following students through their daily routines.

Sizer launches an attack on several of the ubiquitous features of an American high school, such as the standard 50-minute classroom block used in scheduling, which Sizer claimed limited the depth of teaching and learning, particularly when one took into account the time it took to get students into and out of their chairs and deal with administrative chores like attendance-taking and announcements, particularly announcements via PA
Public address
A public address system is an electronic amplification system with a mixer, amplifier and loudspeakers, used to reinforce a sound source, e.g., a person giving a speech, a DJ playing prerecorded music, and distributing the sound throughout a venue or building.Simple PA systems are often used in...

. Sizer also objects strongly to the extensive system of electives, wherein students select from several optional courses of widely varying kind (e.g., photography, foreign languages, art, etc.) which potentially distract from the core curriculum and lead to breadth over depth. Sizer was also skeptical of sports, which occupy a position of high importance in the life of high schools.

Most central to his critique, however, were practices of teaching and learning. Like John Dewey
John Dewey
John Dewey was an American philosopher, psychologist and educational reformer whose ideas have been influential in education and social reform. Dewey was an important early developer of the philosophy of pragmatism and one of the founders of functional psychology...

 (Sizer is an avowed Deweyan) and Paulo Freire
Paulo Freire
Paulo Reglus Neves Freire was a Brazilian educator and influential theorist of critical pedagogy.-Biography:...

, Sizer insisted that education must be dialogical
Dialogue
Dialogue is a literary and theatrical form consisting of a written or spoken conversational exchange between two or more people....

, characterized by give-and-take interaction between teacher and student, rather than unidirectional lecturing. (Sizer primarily emphasized the teacher-student dialogical pairing, though he also admired lively whole-classroom and small-group discussion.) At its best, Sizer suggested that teaching should be thought of as coaching, an analogy to the work of a coach
Coach (sport)
In sports, a coach is an individual involved in the direction, instruction and training of the operations of a sports team or of individual sportspeople.-Staff:...

 "coaching" athletes. Sizer's preferred teaching style involves a student submitting writing and then revising and re-revising in response to the critical feedback of the teacher.

But this, and, in Sizer's eyes, any good pedagogy
Pedagogy
Pedagogy is the study of being a teacher or the process of teaching. The term generally refers to strategies of instruction, or a style of instruction....

 will be difficult, particularly in the nonsupportive environment of the modern bureaucratized high school. So, instead, disengaged students and burnt-out teachers make an unspoken agreement (the eponymous compromise) to demand the least amount of work possible from the other while still fulfilling their basic responsibilities. "It's good enough" is the motto of this compromising education.

Sizer conveys all this in a dual form, alternating descriptions of his experiences at schools with fictional summaries and archetypal characters (producing an effect vaguely reminiscent of The Grapes of Wrath
The Grapes of Wrath
The Grapes of Wrath is a novel published in 1939 and written by John Steinbeck, who was awarded the Pulitzer Prize in 1940 and the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1962....

). "Horace" is Sizer's archetype
Archetype
An archetype is a universally understood symbol or term or pattern of behavior, a prototype upon which others are copied, patterned, or emulated...

 teacher, qualified, capable, and committed, but dehumanized by his working conditions and willing to make the compromise, though painfully conscious of the cost in authenticity. Sizer concludes on a half-optimistic note of rekindling Horace's passion and revolutionary zeal and setting him out on the reformist task, the consequences of which are picked up in Sizer's later books, Horace's School (which applies the method of Horace's Compromise to Sizer's own CES schools, then relatively new on the scene) and Horace's Hope. (which reflects much more broadly on the condition of American education from around the time Sizer's retirement from large-scale reform work.)

The Common Principles

The Coalition was founded on nine "Common Principles" that were intended to codify Sizer's insights from Horace's Compromise and the views and beliefs of others in the organization. These original principles were:
  1. Learning to use one's mind well
  2. Less is More, depth over coverage
  3. Goals apply to all students
  4. Personalization
  5. Student-as-worker, teacher-as-coach
  6. Demonstration of mastery
  7. A tone of decency and trust
  8. Commitment to the entire school
  9. Resources dedicated to teaching and learning
  10. Democracy and equity (this principle was added later, in the mid-nineties)


This was intended to make explicit the Coalition's views on race, class, and gender equality and democratic governance of schools. It is relatively unclear how wide or deep the adoption of the tenth principle is, particularly as regards "democracy", as the sorts of evaluations CES schools are likely to undergo are more oriented towards pedagogy and student performance, and many of the schools that are members of CES, especially those with partial affiliation, may not have had to demonstrate this younger principle rigorously.

Organization

Originally CES was run centrally out of Brown University
Brown University
Brown University is a private, Ivy League university located in Providence, Rhode Island, United States. Founded in 1764 prior to American independence from the British Empire as the College in the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations early in the reign of King George III ,...

. This meant that, functionally, the staff could only work closely with schools on the east coast, and particularly in New England
New England
New England is a region in the northeastern corner of the United States consisting of the six states of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut...

. Later, as the movement gained popularity with progressive educators
Educational progressivism
Progressive education is a pedagogical movement that began in the late nineteenth century and has persisted in various forms to the present. More recently, it has been viewed as an alternative to the test-oriented instruction legislated by the No Child Left Behind educational funding act...

 across the country, CES began encouraging reformers to create regional "Centers" to coordinate CES-style reforms, coach teachers and administrators on school change, and evaluate schools for membership in the coalition. Eventually the national organization became an entirely coordinatory body with relatively little direct interaction with schools, instead concerned mainly with coordinating between Centers, presenting a national public face for the organization, and organizing the annual CES convention, the Fall Forum. Since 1997, the Coalition of Essential Schools has been based in Oakland, California
Oakland, California
Oakland is a major West Coast port city on San Francisco Bay in the U.S. state of California. It is the eighth-largest city in the state with a 2010 population of 390,724...

.

The transition from nationally centralized administration to regional administration has not drastically altered the relation of individual schools to the national entity in part because CES has always deliberately avoided prescriptive standards. This pluralistic and permissive attitude has helped the organization grow, but has also made it extremely difficult to evaluate.

Supported by a grant from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, the Coalition of Essential Schools is engaged in a five-year initiative to establish ten new CES high schools, create a network of 22 CES Mentor High Schools to be actively engaged in helping to support the creation of new small schools, convert two large high schools into several new CES small schools, and document the CES principles and mentoring approach through an online resource, a "Mentor Schools Guide," and a strengthened network of CES Centers that can assist in the creation and re-configuration of new small high schools.

Philosophy and politics

While CES, as an extremely diverse and complex phenomenon, cannot be authoritatively and unilaterally defined, its membership definitely tends towards political progressivism
Progressivism
Progressivism is an umbrella term for a political ideology advocating or favoring social, political, and economic reform or changes. Progressivism is often viewed by some conservatives, constitutionalists, and libertarians to be in opposition to conservative or reactionary ideologies.The...

, meshing with their strongly Deweyan educational philosophies. As can be seen in its very strong emphasis on the child and Sizer's critique of the state's right to educate, the Coalition falls more to the Rousseouvian end of Dewey's thought rather than the Platonic.

List of members of the Coalition of Essential Schools

This is an incomplete list of more than 600 CES member schools:
  • Alabama School of Fine Arts
    Alabama School of Fine Arts
    The Alabama School of Fine Arts is a public, partially residential high school located in Birmingham, AL. The mission of the Alabama School of Fine Arts, a community of explorers, is to nurture impassioned students by guiding and inspiring them to discover and fulfill their individual creative...

    , Birmingham, Alabama
    Birmingham, Alabama
    Birmingham is the largest city in Alabama. The city is the county seat of Jefferson County. According to the 2010 United States Census, Birmingham had a population of 212,237. The Birmingham-Hoover Metropolitan Area, in estimate by the U.S...

  • Beaver Country Day School
    Beaver Country Day School
    Beaver Country Day School is an independent, college preparatory day school for students in grades 6 through 12 founded in 1920. The school is located on a campus in the village of Chestnut Hill, in Brookline, Massachusetts, USA, near Boston. Beaver is a member of the Cum Laude Society, the...

    , Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts
    Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts
    Chestnut Hill is a wealthy New England village located six miles west of downtown Boston, Massachusetts, United States. Like all Massachusetts villages, Chestnut Hill is not an incorporated municipal entity, but unlike most of them, it encompasses parts of three separate municipalities, each of...

  • Brimmer and May School
    Brimmer and May School
    Brimmer and May School is an independent, pre-K-12 school located at 69 Middlesex Road, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts, and a member of the Coalition of Essential Schools.- History :...

    , Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts
    Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts
    Chestnut Hill is a wealthy New England village located six miles west of downtown Boston, Massachusetts, United States. Like all Massachusetts villages, Chestnut Hill is not an incorporated municipal entity, but unlike most of them, it encompasses parts of three separate municipalities, each of...

  • Bushwick School for Social Justice
    Bushwick School for Social Justice
    The Bushwick School for Social Justice is a small public high school in the neighborhood of Bushwick, Brooklyn, New York City, one of four schools currently occupying the Bushwick Campus. Enrollment is approximately 425 students. The school is partnered with Make the Road New York, Brooklyn...

    , New York, New York
  • The Crefeld School
    The Crefeld School
    The Crefeld School is a small, private school in the Chestnut Hill section of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, founded in 1970 as The Miquon Upper School. Its mission is to pioneer a progressive, alternative learning community for classroom secondary and middle school students...

    , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
    Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
    Philadelphia is the largest city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and the county seat of Philadelphia County, with which it is coterminous. The city is located in the Northeastern United States along the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers. It is the fifth-most-populous city in the United States,...

  • Eagle Rock School and Professional Development Center, Estes Park, CO
  • Francis W. Parker Charter Essential School
    Francis W. Parker Charter Essential School
    The Francis W. Parker Charter Essential School is a public charter school in Devens, Massachusetts that serves students in grades 7 to 12...

    , Devens, Massachusetts
  • The Gailer School
    The Gailer School
    The Gailer School is a co-educational independent day school for grades 7–12, located in Middlebury, Vermont.-History:Founded in 1989 by Harry Chaucer, a former high school science teacher, based on his experiences with running the Chaucer house at the Champlain Valley Union High School in...

    , Middlebury, Vermont
  • Gilmour Academy
    Gilmour Academy
    Gilmour Academy is an independent, Roman Catholic, coeducational, college-preparatory school in the Cleveland suburb of Gates Mills, Ohio. Founded in 1946 by the Brothers of Holy Cross, it offers a Montessori preschool program and traditional kindergarten through grade 12. A boarding program is...

    , Gates Mills, Ohio
    Gates Mills, Ohio
    Gates Mills is a village in Cuyahoga County, Ohio, United States. The population was 2,270 at the 2010 census. Gates Mills is an affluent suburb of Cleveland...

  • Greenfield Center School
    Greenfield Center School
    For schools of a similar name, see Greenfield School.Greenfield Center School is an independent day school for students in kindergarten through eighth grade, located in Greenfield, Massachusetts. It has a population of about 140 children, and was founded in 1981.The Greenfield Center School, was...

    , Greenfield, Massachusetts
    Greenfield, Massachusetts
    Greenfield is a city in Franklin County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 17,456 at the 2010 census. It is the county seat of Franklin County. Greenfield is home to Greenfield Community College, the Pioneer Valley Symphony Orchestra, and the Franklin County Fair...

  • Greenville Technical Charter High School
    Greenville Technical Charter High School
    Greenville Technical Charter High School is a small school located on the Barton Campus of Greenville Technical College in Greenville, South Carolina. GTCHS has 420 students and is a Middle College/Early College High School....

    , Greenville, South Carolina
    Greenville, South Carolina
    -Law and government:The city of Greenville adopted the Council-Manager form of municipal government in 1976.-History:The area was part of the Cherokee Nation's protected grounds after the Treaty of 1763, which ended the French and Indian War. No White man was allowed to enter, though some families...

  • Harmony School, Bloomington, IN
  • The Institute for Collaborative Education, New York, New York
  • International School of the Americas
    International School of the Americas
    The International School of the Americas is a magnet school in the North East Independent School District in San Antonio, Texas in Bexar County. It is located on the Robert E. Lee High School campus at 1400 Jackson-Keller Road. It places a focus upon learning from a global perspective as opposed...

    , San Antonio, Texas
    San Antonio, Texas
    San Antonio is the seventh-largest city in the United States of America and the second-largest city within the state of Texas, with a population of 1.33 million. Located in the American Southwest and the south–central part of Texas, the city serves as the seat of Bexar County. In 2011,...

  • Lehman Alternative Community School
    Lehman Alternative Community School
    The Lehman Alternative Community School is a nationally renowned public, educational alternative, combined middle and high school in the Ithaca City School District in Ithaca, New York. Serving grades 6-12 with approximately 305 students, the school is known for its small class size,...

    , Ithaca, New York
    Ithaca, New York
    The city of Ithaca, is a city in upstate New York and the county seat of Tompkins County, as well as the largest community in the Ithaca-Tompkins County metropolitan area...

  • Leadership High School
    Leadership High School
    Leadership High School is a public charter high school located in San Francisco, with approximately 270 students, all in one hall way. Leadership is a college preparatory school with a focus on leadership development and community building...

    , San Francisco, California
    San Francisco, California
    San Francisco , officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the financial, cultural, and transportation center of the San Francisco Bay Area, a region of 7.15 million people which includes San Jose and Oakland...

  • Life Learning Academy, San Francisco, California
    San Francisco, California
    San Francisco , officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the financial, cultural, and transportation center of the San Francisco Bay Area, a region of 7.15 million people which includes San Jose and Oakland...

  • Marlboro School
    Marlboro School
    The Marlboro School is a small public school in Marlboro, Vermont. Marlboro is a member of the Coalition of Essential SchoolsMarlboro has an enrollment of 79 students. It is one of six k-8 schools in Vermont with an enrollment of less than 80. Classrooms are all multi-aged, except for kindergarten...

    , Marlboro, Vermont
    Marlboro, Vermont
    Marlboro is a town in Windham County, Vermont, United States. The population was 978 at the 2000 census. The town is home to both the Southern Vermont Natural History Museum and Marlboro College, which each summer hosts the Marlboro Music School and Festival....

  • Milken Community High School
    Milken Community High School
    Milken Community High School, colloquially Milken, is a private Jewish High School. It is located on Mulholland Drive in the Bel-Air area of Los Angeles, California.Though long affiliated with Stephen S...

    , Los Angeles
    Los Ángeles
    Los Ángeles is the capital of the province of Biobío, in the commune of the same name, in Region VIII , in the center-south of Chile. It is located between the Laja and Biobío rivers. The population is 123,445 inhabitants...

    , California
    California
    California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...

  • The Met School, Providence, Rhode Island
    Providence, Rhode Island
    Providence is the capital and most populous city of Rhode Island and was one of the first cities established in the United States. Located in Providence County, it is the third largest city in the New England region...

  • Olympic Community of Schools
    Olympic Community of Schools
    Olympic Community of Schools is located in Charlotte, North Carolina, and is one of 19 high schools in the Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools system. It joined the Coalition of Essential Schools in 2005 with funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, and has split into 5 small, theme-based...

    , Charlotte, North Carolina
    Charlotte, North Carolina
    Charlotte is the largest city in the U.S. state of North Carolina and the seat of Mecklenburg County. In 2010, Charlotte's population according to the US Census Bureau was 731,424, making it the 17th largest city in the United States based on population. The Charlotte metropolitan area had a 2009...

  • Piscataway Township High School
    Piscataway Township High School
    Piscataway Township High School is a four-year public high school in Piscataway Township in Middlesex County, New Jersey, United States, serving students in grades 9-12 as part of the Piscataway Township Schools....

    , Piscataway Township, New Jersey
    Piscataway Township, New Jersey
    The township consists of the following historic villages and areas: New Market, known as Quibbletown in the 18th Century, Randolphville, Fieldville and North Stelton...

  • Quest High School
    Quest High School
    Quest Early College High School is a small secondary school located in unincorporated Harris County, Texas, near the city of Humble and is a part of Humble Independent School District...

    , Humble, Texas
    Humble, Texas
    Humble is a city in Harris County, Texas within the Houston–Sugar Land–Baytown metropolitan area.As of the 2000 census, the city population was 14,579. The city shares a zip code with the small Houston neighborhood of Bordersville, although people who live in Bordersville still have Humble...

  • Right Question Institute, Cambridge, MA
  • Riverdale High School
    Riverdale High School (Oregon)
    Riverdale High School is a public high school in Portland, Oregon, United States. The high school is unique in that it is a public school, but students from outside the district must go through an admissions process and pay tuition to attend, unless they get a district transfer from their original...

    , Portland, Oregon
    Portland, Oregon
    Portland is a city located in the Pacific Northwest, near the confluence of the Willamette and Columbia rivers in the U.S. state of Oregon. As of the 2010 Census, it had a population of 583,776, making it the 29th most populous city in the United States...

  • San Francisco Community School, San Francisco, California
    San Francisco, California
    San Francisco , officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the financial, cultural, and transportation center of the San Francisco Bay Area, a region of 7.15 million people which includes San Jose and Oakland...

  • School of the Future
    School of the Future (New York City)
    The School of the Future is a public secondary school located at 127 East 22nd Street on the corner of Lexington Avenue, in the Gramercy Park neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City. It serves grades 6 through 12 and is a part of the New York City Department of Education...

    , New York, New York
  • School One, Providence, Rhode Island
    Providence, Rhode Island
    Providence is the capital and most populous city of Rhode Island and was one of the first cities established in the United States. Located in Providence County, it is the third largest city in the New England region...

  • Souhegan High School
    Souhegan High School
    Souhegan High School is a Coalition of Essential Schools high school located in Amherst, New Hampshire. Students from Amherst and Mont Vernon attend Souhegan for 9th through 12th grades. There are about 872 students and over 160 faculty members...

    , Amherst, New Hampshire
    Amherst, New Hampshire
    Amherst is a town in Hillsborough County, New Hampshire, United States. The population was 11,201 at the 2010 census. Amherst is home to Ponemah Bog Wildlife Sanctuary, Hodgman State Forest, the Joe English Reservation and Baboosic Lake....

  • Thomas Jefferson High School, Auburn, Washington
    Auburn, Washington
    -Parks:Auburn has an extensive system of parks, open space and urban trails comprising 29 developed parks, 5 undeveloped sites under planning, 2 skate parks, 2 water roatary parks, and over of trails , and almost of open space for passive and active recreation.-Environmental Park:The Auburn...

  • Vanguard High School
    Vanguard High School
    Vanguard High School is one of eight high schools in Marion County, Florida. The school serves the northeast area of Ocala, Florida. Vanguard offers the International Baccalaureate program for students, which accepts pupils from outside districts and makes up about 25% of the student population....

    , New York, New York
  • Village School (Great Neck, New York)
  • Watkinson School
    Watkinson School
    Watkinson School is a private coeducational day school in Hartford, Connecticut. Watkinson is situated on Bloomfield Avenue in Hartford, Connecticut, adjacent to the University of Hartford and serves students from sixth through 12th grade...

    , Hartford, Connecticut
    Hartford, Connecticut
    Hartford is the capital of the U.S. state of Connecticut. The seat of Hartford County until Connecticut disbanded county government in 1960, it is the second most populous city on New England's largest river, the Connecticut River. As of the 2010 Census, Hartford's population was 124,775, making...

  • Wildwood School
    Wildwood School
    Wildwood School is an independent K-12 school located in Los Angeles. Wildwood was founded as an elementary school in 1971, by a group of parents led by a young lawyer named Belle Mason. The secondary campus opened in 2000. Wildwood School is dedicated to focusing on teaching independent learning...

    , Los Angeles, California
    Los Angeles, California
    Los Angeles , with a population at the 2010 United States Census of 3,792,621, is the most populous city in California, USA and the second most populous in the United States, after New York City. It has an area of , and is located in Southern California...


Further reading

  • Sizer, Theodore R. Horace's Compromise.Boston : Houghton Mifflin, 1984
  • Sizer, Theodore R. Horace's School : Redesigning the American High School. Boston : Houghton Mifflin Co., 1992
  • Sizer, Theodore R. "Horace's Hope: What Works for the American High School." Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1996.
  • Sizer, Theodore R. "The Red Pencil : Convictions from Experience in Education." New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004.
  • Sizer, Theodore R., and Nancy Faust Sizer. "The Students Are Watching: Schools and the Moral Contract." Boston: Beacon Press, 1999.
  • Sizer, Theodore R., Nancy Faust Sizer, and Deborah Meier. "Keeping School: Letters to Families from Principals of Two Small Schools." Boston: Beacon Press, 2004.
  • Ancess, Jacqueline. "Beating the Odds: High Schools As Communities of Commitment." New York: Teachers College Press, 2003.
  • Cushman, Kathleen, Adria Steinberg, and Robert Riordan. "Schooling for the Real World: the Essential Guide to Rigorous and Relevant Learning." San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999.
  • Feldman, Jay, Lisette Lopez and Katherine G. Simon. "Choosing Small : The Essential Guide to Successful High School Conversion." San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2005.
  • Littky, Dennis. "The Big Picture: Education Is Everyone's Business." Washington D.C.: ASCD, 2004.
  • Meier, Deborah. "In Schools We Trust: Creating Communities of Learning in an Era of Testing and Standardization." Boston: Beacon Press, 2002.
  • Meier, Deborah. "Will Standards Save Public Education?" Boston: Beacon Press,2000.
  • Meier, Deborah. "Is Standardized Testing Good for Education?: A New Democracy Forum with Deborah Meier." ed. Joshua Cohen and Joel Rogers. Boston: Beacon Press, 2000.
  • Meier, Deborah. "The Power of Their Ideas: Lessons for America from a Small School in Harlem." Boston: Beacon Press, 1995.
  • Meier, Deborah, Kohn, Alfie, Darling-Hammond, Linda, Sizer, Theodore R., and Wood, George. "Many Children Left Behind : How the No Child Left Behind Act Is Damaging Our Children and Our Schools." Boston: Beacon Press, 2004.
  • Muncey and McQuillian. Reform and Resistance in Schools and Classrooms: An Ethnographic View of the Coalition of Essential Schools. New Haven : Yale University Press, 1996 (Provides a critical analysis of the early implementation of CES reforms at the first CES schools.)
  • Katherine G. Simon. "Moral Questions in the Classroom: How to Get Kids to Think Deeply about Real Life and their School Work." New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001.
  • Weinbaum, Alexandra, David Allen, Tina Blythe, Steve Seidel, Katherine Simon, and Catherine Rubin. "Teaching as Inquiry: Asking Hard Questions to Improve Teacher Practice and Student Achievement." New York: Teachers College Press, 2004.

External links

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