Cao Rui
Encyclopedia
Cao Rui formally known as Emperor Ming of Wei, was the second emperor of the state of Cao Wei
during the Three Kingdoms
period of Chinese history
. He was a son of Cao Wei's first emperor Cao Pi
according to Liu Song dynasty historian, Pei Songzhi
, but was a son of Yuan Xi
according to modern historian, Lu Bi, and Qing dynasty scholar, Mou Guangsheng. His biological issue remains controversial.
Cao Rui's reign was viewed in many different ways throughout Chinese history. He was an emperor who was known to have been a strong military strategist and a good leader astute in commissioning capable officials. At the same time, he was personally a supporter of arts. However, he devoted much resources into building palaces and ancestral temples, and his reign saw the stalemate between his empire, Shu Han
, and Eastern Wu
become more entrenched. His building projects and his desire to have many concubines (who numbered in the thousands) greatly exhausted the imperial treasury. On his deathbed, he entrusted his son Cao Fang
to the regency of Cao Shuang
and Sima Yi
-- a fatal mistake for his clan, as Cao Shuang monopolized power and governed incompetently, eventually drawing a violent reaction from Sima, who overthrew him in a coup d'etat
and became in control of the Cao Wei government, eventually allowing his grandson Sima Yan to usurp the Wei throne.
was the paramount warlord of Han Dynasty
, who had rendered Emperor Xian of Han
a mere figurehead. His father Cao Pi
was Cao Cao's oldest surviving son and the heir apparent. His mother Lady Zhen had been the wife of Yuan Shao
's son Yuan Xi
, but when she was seized by Cao Cao's army in 204, Cao Pi forced her to marry him, and she gave birth to Cao Rui only eight months after the wedding—leading to theories that Cao Rui was actually biologically Yuan Xi's son and not Cao Pi's. This eventually was used to great advantage by Cao Pi's concubine Guo Nüwang
to create tension between Cao Pi and Lady Zhen. Cao Pi, after his father's death in 220, forced Emperor Xian to yield the throne to him and established Cao Wei
. Lady Zhen was not allowed to accompany him to the new capital Luoyang
, and in 221 he forced her to commit suicide.
Because of what happened to Lady Zhen and Cao Rui's unclear origin, even though Cao Rui was the oldest of Cao Pi's sons, he was not created crown prince
early in his father's reign, but was only created the Prince of Pingyuan in 222. Sometime during his years as the Prince of Pingyuan, he married a daughter of an aristocrat, Lady Yu, as his wife and princess. He apparently had a cordial relationship with Lady Guo, who was created empress (also in 222), and as she was sonless, his status as heir apparent was not seriously challenged. It is said that any thoughts that Cao Pi had at not making him heir was dissipated by a hunt; during that hunt, Cao Pi and Cao Rui had encountered a mother deer and a young deer. Cao Pi killed the mother deer with an arrow, and then ordered Cao Rui to kill the young deer. Cao Rui wept and said, "Your imperial majesty had already killed the mother, and I do not have the heart to kill the son as well." Cao Pi dropped his bow and arrows and became mournful.
In 226, when Cao Pi became ill, he finally created Cao Rui crown prince. He died soon thereafter, and Cao Rui became emperor at the age of 21.
's successive petitions, however, he continued the severe prohibitions against princes' holding of offices that his father Cao Pi had put in place, and this was commonly viewed by traditional historians as an eventual factor in the downfall of Cao Wei, as the Simas took power after Cao Rui's death without the imperial princes having any real ability to oppose them.
, the steady administrator Chen Qun
, and the shrewd strategist Sima Yi
. Once Cao Rui became emperor, however, he, while knowing the value of the advice of these senior officials, chose perhaps the best path to deal with them: honoring them and making them regional governors with full authority in the provinces they governed. By doing this, he showed that he was his own man while at the same time continued to receive the wisdom of their advice.
Throughout Cao Rui's reign, he showed great diligence in seeking out advice from multiple officials, rather than concentrating on listening to several, before making important decisions. He was generally cautious and not willing to take risks, but at the same time was therefore able to avoid major disasters for his empire.
's regent, Zhuge Liang
. Zhuge had, after the death of Shu Han's founding emperor, Liu Bei
, initially taken a passive posture militarily with regard to the Shu Han-Cao Wei border, while reestablishing an alliance with Sun Quan's Eastern Wu
, in order to rest the people and the troops. In 227, he, under the theory that Shu Han was naturally a weaker state than Cao Wei and, if it had just sat and done nothing, would eventually be swallowed up by Cao Wei anyway, started a series of five campaigns north.
During these campaigns, Cao Rui's response generally was to head to the metropolitan Chang'an
-- a politically important city that Wei could not afford to lose—and then commissioning generals to the frontlines to ward off Zhuge's attacks. This strategy had the effect of boosting the morale of the troops and shortening the communication line. Being fairly quickly updated as to the events at the frontlines, Cao Rui could also keep the central empire under his watch. At least partly because of Cao Rui's precise prediction on Zhuge's plan, Zhuge's campaigns ended up futile, and after his death in 234, Zhuge's plan was largely abandoned by his successors Jiang Wan
and Fei Yi
. That did not mean that there was peace on the borders with Shu Han, however, as nearly yearly there were battles between the two states. However, there would be no major confrontations on the scale of Zhuge's campaigns for the rest of Cao Rui's reign.
, and Man's stewardship averted many disasters.
Cao Rui's greatest military loss came in 228, when the Eastern Wu general Zhou Fang
tricked Cao Rui's distant cousin and regional governor Cao Xiu
into believing that he was ready to surrender his troops to Cao Wei, while instead laying a trap for Cao Xiu. Instead of realizing that it was indeed a trap, Cao Rui enthusiastically approved Cao Xiu's plan, and this led to a major military disaster, but Cao Xiu's forces were saved by Jia Kui
from total annihilation.
Another serious crisis posed by Eastern Wu occurred in 234, when Eastern Wu, in a semi-coordinated effort with Shu Han, launched an attack against Cao Wei simultaneously with Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions. At the time, many frontline officials were on vacation visiting families, so Man Zhong requested Cao Rui to call them back to fight Sun Quan. Cao Rui refused to cancel his subordinates' vacation, and ordered Man to focus on the defense. Cao Rui then personally led the royal army as reinforcement, and acted as an effective coordinator of the various forces that Cao Wei had on Eastern Wu's borders, and Eastern Wu was unable to make substantial gains.
), started by Gongsun Du
in 190. In 228, when Gongsun Du's grandson Gongsun Yuan
deposed his uncle Gongsun Gong
in a coup and asked for an official commission from Cao Rui. Against Liu Ye (劉曄)'s advice to attack the Gongsuns while there was dissension within, Cao Rui gave Gongsun Yuan an official commission as the governor of Liaodong Commandery.
In 232, Cao Rui, angry that Gongsun Yuan had repeatedly communicated with and sold horses to Eastern Wu
, ordered his generals Tian Yu
and Wang Xiong (王雄) to attack Liaodong, against Jiang Ji (蔣濟)'s advice; the attacks were not successful, although Tian was able to intercept the Eastern Wu horse-buying fleet and destroy it. After the incident, Gongsun appeared to have formally still remained a vassal of Cao Wei, but the relationship was damaged.
The next year, however, that relationship would be somewhat repaired. Gongsun, apprehensive of another attack from Cao Wei, sent ambassadors to Eastern Wu to formally submit to its emperor Sun Quan. Sun was so pleased that he immediately created Gongsun the Prince of Yan and granted him the nine bestowments
, which were typically reserved for officials so powerful that the bestowments were typically viewed as a sign that the emperor was about to abdicate to them. Once Sun's ambassadors arrived in Liaodong, however, Gongsun, realizing that Eastern Wu would be of little help in an expedition against him, betrayed Eastern Wu, slaughtering Sun's ambassadors and seizing their troops. In response, Cao Rui created Gongsun the Duke of Lelang. (Part of the Eastern Wu troops were able to escape and eventually return home with the assistance of Goguryeo
, a rival of the Gongsuns.)
In 237, however, Cao Rui again considered attacking Liaodong, angered by reports that Gongsun had repeatedly defamed him. He commissioned Guanqiu Jian
to prepare for an attack, and then ordered Gongsun to come to Luoyang for an official visit. Gongsun refused and declared independence. Guanqiu attacked him, but was stopped by torrential rains. Gongsun then declared himself the Prince of Yan and entered into alliances with the Xianbei
tribes to harass Cao Wei's borders.
The following year, Cao Rui sent Sima Yi instead and gave him 40,000 men. Gongsun, upon hearing this, again requested aid from Eastern Wu. Sun, angry at Gongsun's last betrayal, pretended to agree, but did not send Gongsun any actual help. Sima's expeditory force was, as Guanqiu's, also initially halted by torrential rains, but Sima waited out the rains and surrounded Gongsun's capital of Xiangping (襄平, in modern Liaoyang
, Liaoning
), starving Gongsun's troops. After nearly three months of siege, Xiangping fell, and Gongsun fled, but was captured and executed by Sima. Liaodong became part of Cao Wei's domain.
, and the temples were needed for the cults of his ancestors. However, he went beyond the minimally required, and continued to build temples and palaces throughout the rest of his reign, severely draining the imperial treasury. While he occasionally halted projects at the officials' behest, the projects would restart after brief breaks. He not only built palaces in Luoyang, but also built a palace in Xuchang
. In 237, he further moved many of the magnificent statues and monuments that were commissioned by Emperor Wu of Han
from Chang'an to Luoyang, costing great expenses and lives. He further built gigantic bronze statues of his own and placed them on a man-made hill inside his palace, surrounded by rare trees and plants and populated by rare animals.
Cao Rui was also increasing his collection of women, as his concubines and ladies in waiting numbered thousands. His palace-building projects might have been with intent to house them. In 237, he even ordered that beautiful married women all be formally seized unless their husbands were able to ransom them, and that they would be married to soldiers instead—but that the most beautiful among them would become his concubines. Despite some officials' protestations, this decree was apparently carried out, much to the distress of his people.
, empress in 227. Princess Yu was exiled back to their original palace. He loved Empress Mao dearly, and a number of her relatives, including her father and brother, became honored officials (but without actual powers).
Despite his collection of women, however, Cao Rui was without any son who survived infancy. He adopted two sons to be his own -- Cao Fang
and Cao Xun
, whom he created princes in 235. (It is usually accepted that they were sons of his cousins, although the exact parentage is not clear.) In 237, Cao Rui took the unprecedented (and unrepeated in Chinese history) action of setting his own temple name of Liezu and ordering that his temple, in the future, never to be torn down. (Based on Confucian regulations, except for the founder of the dynasty, rulers' temples would be destroyed after six generations.) He carried out these actions apparently in apprehension that he would be given an unflattering temple name (or none at all) and that his temple would eventually be destroyed, due to his lack of biological issue and unclear origin.
By 237, Cao Rui's favorite was no longer Empress Mao, but Consort Guo
. Once, when Cao Rui was attending a feast hosted by Consort Guo, Consort Guo requested that Empress Mao be invited to join as well, but Cao Rui refused and further ordered that no news about the feast is to be given to Empess Mao. However, the news leaked, and Empress Mao talked about the feast with him anyway. He became exceedingly angry, and killed a number of his attendants whom he suspected of leaking the news to Empress Mao, and, inexplicably, ordered Empress Mao to commit suicide, even though she was still buried with honors due an empress, and her family remained honored.
In 238, Cao Rui grew ill. He created Consort Guo empress in preparation of allowing her to become empress dowager after his death. He initially wanted to entrust his adopted son, Cao Fang the Prince of Qi, to his uncle Cao Yu (曹宇), to serve as the lead regent, along with Xiahou Xian (夏侯獻), Cao Shuang
, Cao Zhao (曹肇), and Qin Lang (秦朗). However, his trusted officials Liu Fang (劉放) and Sun Zi (孫資) were unfriendly with Xiahou and Cao Zhao and were apprehensive about their becoming regents, and managed to persuade him to make Cao Shuang (with whom they were friendly) and Sima Yi regents instead. Cao Yu, Cao Zhao, and Qin were excluded from the regency. In spring of 239, Cao Rui created the seven-year-old Cao Fang crown prince, and died the same day of that creation. Cao Fang succeeded him as emperor.
Cao Wei
Cao Wei was one of the states that competed for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period. With the capital at Luoyang, the state was established by Cao Pi in 220, based upon the foundations that his father Cao Cao laid...
during the Three Kingdoms
Three Kingdoms
The Three Kingdoms period was a period in Chinese history, part of an era of disunity called the "Six Dynasties" following immediately the loss of de facto power of the Han Dynasty rulers. In a strict academic sense it refers to the period between the foundation of the state of Wei in 220 and the...
period of Chinese history
History of China
Chinese civilization originated in various regional centers along both the Yellow River and the Yangtze River valleys in the Neolithic era, but the Yellow River is said to be the Cradle of Chinese Civilization. With thousands of years of continuous history, China is one of the world's oldest...
. He was a son of Cao Wei's first emperor Cao Pi
Cao Pi
Cao Pi , formally known as Emperor Wen of Wei, was the first emperor of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. Born in Qiao County, Pei Commandery , he was the second son of the late Han Dynasty warlord Cao Cao.Cao Pi, like his father, was a poet...
according to Liu Song dynasty historian, Pei Songzhi
Pei Songzhi
Pei Songzhi was commissioned by Emperor Wen of Liu Song to write a commentary on Chen Shou's Records of Three Kingdoms, providing additional detail omitted from the original work. His commentary, completed in 429, became integral to later editions of the Records, making the joint work three times...
, but was a son of Yuan Xi
Yuan Xi
Yuan Xi was the second son of the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty era of Chinese history.Yuan was described in Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms as "intelligent but weak and indecisive", in contrast to his older brother Yuan Tan, who was described as...
according to modern historian, Lu Bi, and Qing dynasty scholar, Mou Guangsheng. His biological issue remains controversial.
Cao Rui's reign was viewed in many different ways throughout Chinese history. He was an emperor who was known to have been a strong military strategist and a good leader astute in commissioning capable officials. At the same time, he was personally a supporter of arts. However, he devoted much resources into building palaces and ancestral temples, and his reign saw the stalemate between his empire, Shu Han
Shu Han
Shu Han was one of the three states competing for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period, after the fall of the Han Dynasty. The state was based on areas around Sichuan, which was then known as Shu...
, and Eastern Wu
Eastern Wu
Eastern Wu, also known as Sun Wu, was one the three states competing for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period after the fall of the Han Dynasty. It was based in the Jiangnan region of China...
become more entrenched. His building projects and his desire to have many concubines (who numbered in the thousands) greatly exhausted the imperial treasury. On his deathbed, he entrusted his son Cao Fang
Cao Fang
Cao Fang , formally known as Duke Li of Shaoling, was the third emperor of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He retained the title Prince of Qi after he was deposed by the regent Sima Shi...
to the regency of Cao Shuang
Cao Shuang
Cao Shuang , style name Zhaobo , was a military general, politician and regent of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He was the son of Cao Zhen...
and Sima Yi
Sima Yi
Sima Yi was a general and politician of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. He is perhaps best known for defending Wei from Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions...
-- a fatal mistake for his clan, as Cao Shuang monopolized power and governed incompetently, eventually drawing a violent reaction from Sima, who overthrew him in a coup d'etat
Coup d'état
A coup d'état state, literally: strike/blow of state)—also known as a coup, putsch, and overthrow—is the sudden, extrajudicial deposition of a government, usually by a small group of the existing state establishment—typically the military—to replace the deposed government with another body; either...
and became in control of the Cao Wei government, eventually allowing his grandson Sima Yan to usurp the Wei throne.
Family background
When Cao Rui was born (likely in 204), his grandfather Cao CaoCao Cao
Cao Cao was a warlord and the penultimate chancellor of the Eastern Han Dynasty who rose to great power during the dynasty's final years. As one of the central figures of the Three Kingdoms period, he laid the foundations for what was to become the state of Cao Wei and was posthumously titled...
was the paramount warlord of Han Dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
, who had rendered Emperor Xian of Han
Emperor Xian of Han
Emperor Xian of Han , personal name Liu Xie, style name Bohe, was the last emperor of the Han Dynasty period of Chinese history...
a mere figurehead. His father Cao Pi
Cao Pi
Cao Pi , formally known as Emperor Wen of Wei, was the first emperor of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. Born in Qiao County, Pei Commandery , he was the second son of the late Han Dynasty warlord Cao Cao.Cao Pi, like his father, was a poet...
was Cao Cao's oldest surviving son and the heir apparent. His mother Lady Zhen had been the wife of Yuan Shao
Yuan Shao
Yuan Shao was a warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He occupied the northern territories of China during the civil war that occurred towards the end of the Han Dynasty and the beginning of the Three Kingdoms era...
's son Yuan Xi
Yuan Xi
Yuan Xi was the second son of the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty era of Chinese history.Yuan was described in Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms as "intelligent but weak and indecisive", in contrast to his older brother Yuan Tan, who was described as...
, but when she was seized by Cao Cao's army in 204, Cao Pi forced her to marry him, and she gave birth to Cao Rui only eight months after the wedding—leading to theories that Cao Rui was actually biologically Yuan Xi's son and not Cao Pi's. This eventually was used to great advantage by Cao Pi's concubine Guo Nüwang
Empress Guo Nüwang
Guo Nüwang , formally known as Empress Wende , was an empress of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. She was married to Cao Pi , the first emperor of Cao Wei.-Family background and marriage to Cao Pi:Her father Guo Yong came from a line of minor local officials...
to create tension between Cao Pi and Lady Zhen. Cao Pi, after his father's death in 220, forced Emperor Xian to yield the throne to him and established Cao Wei
Cao Wei
Cao Wei was one of the states that competed for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period. With the capital at Luoyang, the state was established by Cao Pi in 220, based upon the foundations that his father Cao Cao laid...
. Lady Zhen was not allowed to accompany him to the new capital Luoyang
Luoyang
Luoyang is a prefecture-level city in western Henan province of Central China. It borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the southeast, Nanyang to the south, Sanmenxia to the west, Jiyuan to the north, and Jiaozuo to the northeast.Situated on the central plain of...
, and in 221 he forced her to commit suicide.
Because of what happened to Lady Zhen and Cao Rui's unclear origin, even though Cao Rui was the oldest of Cao Pi's sons, he was not created crown prince
Crown Prince
A crown prince or crown princess is the heir or heiress apparent to the throne in a royal or imperial monarchy. The wife of a crown prince is also titled crown princess....
early in his father's reign, but was only created the Prince of Pingyuan in 222. Sometime during his years as the Prince of Pingyuan, he married a daughter of an aristocrat, Lady Yu, as his wife and princess. He apparently had a cordial relationship with Lady Guo, who was created empress (also in 222), and as she was sonless, his status as heir apparent was not seriously challenged. It is said that any thoughts that Cao Pi had at not making him heir was dissipated by a hunt; during that hunt, Cao Pi and Cao Rui had encountered a mother deer and a young deer. Cao Pi killed the mother deer with an arrow, and then ordered Cao Rui to kill the young deer. Cao Rui wept and said, "Your imperial majesty had already killed the mother, and I do not have the heart to kill the son as well." Cao Pi dropped his bow and arrows and became mournful.
In 226, when Cao Pi became ill, he finally created Cao Rui crown prince. He died soon thereafter, and Cao Rui became emperor at the age of 21.
As emperor
Cao Rui's reign was a paradoxical one in many ways. He was clearly intelligent and capable, and yet never fulfilled his potential in his governance of the country or in his military campaigns. He showed great compassion at times, and yet was capable of great cruelty. He carried out many acts that were beneficial for the empire and yet at least as many that were hurtful. Despite his uncle Cao ZhiCao Zhi
Cao Zhi was a poet who lived during the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. His poetry style, greatly revered during the Jin Dynasty and Southern and Northern Dynasties, came to be known as the Jian'an style....
's successive petitions, however, he continued the severe prohibitions against princes' holding of offices that his father Cao Pi had put in place, and this was commonly viewed by traditional historians as an eventual factor in the downfall of Cao Wei, as the Simas took power after Cao Rui's death without the imperial princes having any real ability to oppose them.
Treatment of officials
Cao Rui, a young adult when he became emperor, quickly showed a knack for finding capable officials to empower while maintaining steady control over them. His father had appointed three regents for him—his distant cousin Cao ZhenCao Zhen
Cao Zhen was a military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He served the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period. He was also a distant nephew of Cao Cao, though the latter treated him like a son. Cao Zhen participated in many...
, the steady administrator Chen Qun
Chen Qun
Chen Qun was a minister of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history.Chen Qun initiated the Nine-rank system for civil service nomination in Cao Wei. Following the death of the ruler Cao Pi, Chen Qun became the Guardian of Cao Wei's military forces...
, and the shrewd strategist Sima Yi
Sima Yi
Sima Yi was a general and politician of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. He is perhaps best known for defending Wei from Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions...
. Once Cao Rui became emperor, however, he, while knowing the value of the advice of these senior officials, chose perhaps the best path to deal with them: honoring them and making them regional governors with full authority in the provinces they governed. By doing this, he showed that he was his own man while at the same time continued to receive the wisdom of their advice.
Throughout Cao Rui's reign, he showed great diligence in seeking out advice from multiple officials, rather than concentrating on listening to several, before making important decisions. He was generally cautious and not willing to take risks, but at the same time was therefore able to avoid major disasters for his empire.
Campaigns against Shu Han
One immediate threat that Cao Rui had to deal with after he became emperor were attacks from Shu HanShu Han
Shu Han was one of the three states competing for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period, after the fall of the Han Dynasty. The state was based on areas around Sichuan, which was then known as Shu...
's regent, Zhuge Liang
Zhuge Liang
Zhuge Liang was a chancellor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He is often recognised as the greatest and most accomplished strategist of his era....
. Zhuge had, after the death of Shu Han's founding emperor, Liu Bei
Liu Bei
Liu Bei , also known as Liu Xuande, was a warlord, military general and later the founding emperor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history...
, initially taken a passive posture militarily with regard to the Shu Han-Cao Wei border, while reestablishing an alliance with Sun Quan's Eastern Wu
Eastern Wu
Eastern Wu, also known as Sun Wu, was one the three states competing for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period after the fall of the Han Dynasty. It was based in the Jiangnan region of China...
, in order to rest the people and the troops. In 227, he, under the theory that Shu Han was naturally a weaker state than Cao Wei and, if it had just sat and done nothing, would eventually be swallowed up by Cao Wei anyway, started a series of five campaigns north.
During these campaigns, Cao Rui's response generally was to head to the metropolitan Chang'an
Chang'an
Chang'an is an ancient capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history, today known as Xi'an. Chang'an literally means "Perpetual Peace" in Classical Chinese. During the short-lived Xin Dynasty, the city was renamed "Constant Peace" ; yet after its fall in AD 23, the old name was restored...
-- a politically important city that Wei could not afford to lose—and then commissioning generals to the frontlines to ward off Zhuge's attacks. This strategy had the effect of boosting the morale of the troops and shortening the communication line. Being fairly quickly updated as to the events at the frontlines, Cao Rui could also keep the central empire under his watch. At least partly because of Cao Rui's precise prediction on Zhuge's plan, Zhuge's campaigns ended up futile, and after his death in 234, Zhuge's plan was largely abandoned by his successors Jiang Wan
Jiang Wan
Jiang Wan , style name Gongyan , was an official of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. After Zhuge Liang's death, he succeeded Zhuge as the regent for the Shu emperor, Liu Shan.-Early career:...
and Fei Yi
Fei Yi
Fei Yi, style name Wenwei , was an official of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. He succeeded Jiang Wan as regent of Shu Han, and avoided major expedition against rival state, Cao Wei...
. That did not mean that there was peace on the borders with Shu Han, however, as nearly yearly there were battles between the two states. However, there would be no major confrontations on the scale of Zhuge's campaigns for the rest of Cao Rui's reign.
Campaigns against Eastern Wu
During Cao Rui's reigns, there were also many battles waged against the other rival empire, Eastern Wu. The very first came only two months after Cao Rui had become emperor in 226. It was during that campaign that Cao Rui showed his acumen for judging a situation correctly—believing that by the time that reinforcements could be sent, Eastern Wu's monarch Sun Quan would have already withdrawn, and therefore sending reinforcements was pointless. Throughout his reign, he would generally take a similar stance during campaigns against Eastern Wu as he did with Shu Han — head east personally to be close to the theater of the war, while remaining some distance away from the frontlines, which also proved to be effective. He also entrusted the southeastern border to the capable Man ChongMan Chong
Man Chong , style name Boning , was an official of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history.-Biography:...
, and Man's stewardship averted many disasters.
Cao Rui's greatest military loss came in 228, when the Eastern Wu general Zhou Fang
Zhou Fang (Three Kingdoms)
Zhou Fang, style name Ziyu , was a military general of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. In 228, he was a main figure in a confrontation between Eastern Wu and Cao Wei, when he pretended to surrender to Cao Wei to induce the enemy general Cao Xiu into a trap, and...
tricked Cao Rui's distant cousin and regional governor Cao Xiu
Cao Xiu
Cao Xiu was a military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He served the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period. A distant nephew of Cao Cao, Cao Xiu was given special attention by the former, who once asserted him befitting...
into believing that he was ready to surrender his troops to Cao Wei, while instead laying a trap for Cao Xiu. Instead of realizing that it was indeed a trap, Cao Rui enthusiastically approved Cao Xiu's plan, and this led to a major military disaster, but Cao Xiu's forces were saved by Jia Kui
Jia Kui
Jia Kui, , style name Liangdao , was a military general and bureaucrat during the Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He became a subject of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period.-Biography:...
from total annihilation.
Another serious crisis posed by Eastern Wu occurred in 234, when Eastern Wu, in a semi-coordinated effort with Shu Han, launched an attack against Cao Wei simultaneously with Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions. At the time, many frontline officials were on vacation visiting families, so Man Zhong requested Cao Rui to call them back to fight Sun Quan. Cao Rui refused to cancel his subordinates' vacation, and ordered Man to focus on the defense. Cao Rui then personally led the royal army as reinforcement, and acted as an effective coordinator of the various forces that Cao Wei had on Eastern Wu's borders, and Eastern Wu was unable to make substantial gains.
Campaigns against Liaodong
The only real military gain for Cao Wei during Cao Rui's reign was the end of the Gongsun clan's hold on Liaodong (modern central and eastern LiaoningLiaoning
' is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the northeast of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "辽" , a name taken from the Liao River that flows through the province. "Níng" means "peace"...
), started by Gongsun Du
Gongsun Du
Gongsun Du was a military general and warlord of the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He did not get the opportunity to really get into battle until Dong Zhuo seized power from Emperor Shao. Dong Zhuo, hoping to expand the empire, gave Gongsun Du the command to attack present-day Korea...
in 190. In 228, when Gongsun Du's grandson Gongsun Yuan
Gongsun Yuan
Gongsun Yuan , style name Wenyi , was a warlord and vassal of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history.-Biography:...
deposed his uncle Gongsun Gong
Gongsun Gong
Gongsun Gong was a minor warlord during the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He was the younger brother of Gongsun Kang and son of Gongsun Du. Gongsun Gong advised his brother to kill Yuan Xi and Yuan Shang and deliver their heads to Cao Cao. After the death of Gongsun...
in a coup and asked for an official commission from Cao Rui. Against Liu Ye (劉曄)'s advice to attack the Gongsuns while there was dissension within, Cao Rui gave Gongsun Yuan an official commission as the governor of Liaodong Commandery.
In 232, Cao Rui, angry that Gongsun Yuan had repeatedly communicated with and sold horses to Eastern Wu
Eastern Wu
Eastern Wu, also known as Sun Wu, was one the three states competing for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period after the fall of the Han Dynasty. It was based in the Jiangnan region of China...
, ordered his generals Tian Yu
Tian Yu
Tian Yu , style name Guorang , was a military general of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. Tian Yu joined Xiang Yang on the orders of Cao Rui when the Eastern Wu army invaded the northern region in a combined effort with Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions. Lu Xun then...
and Wang Xiong (王雄) to attack Liaodong, against Jiang Ji (蔣濟)'s advice; the attacks were not successful, although Tian was able to intercept the Eastern Wu horse-buying fleet and destroy it. After the incident, Gongsun appeared to have formally still remained a vassal of Cao Wei, but the relationship was damaged.
The next year, however, that relationship would be somewhat repaired. Gongsun, apprehensive of another attack from Cao Wei, sent ambassadors to Eastern Wu to formally submit to its emperor Sun Quan. Sun was so pleased that he immediately created Gongsun the Prince of Yan and granted him the nine bestowments
Nine bestowments
The nine bestowments were awards given by Chinese emperors to extraordinary officials, ostensibly to reward them for their accomplishments. The nine bestowments were awards given by Chinese emperors to extraordinary officials, ostensibly to reward them for their accomplishments. The nine...
, which were typically reserved for officials so powerful that the bestowments were typically viewed as a sign that the emperor was about to abdicate to them. Once Sun's ambassadors arrived in Liaodong, however, Gongsun, realizing that Eastern Wu would be of little help in an expedition against him, betrayed Eastern Wu, slaughtering Sun's ambassadors and seizing their troops. In response, Cao Rui created Gongsun the Duke of Lelang. (Part of the Eastern Wu troops were able to escape and eventually return home with the assistance of Goguryeo
Goguryeo
Goguryeo or Koguryŏ was an ancient Korean kingdom located in present day northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province....
, a rival of the Gongsuns.)
In 237, however, Cao Rui again considered attacking Liaodong, angered by reports that Gongsun had repeatedly defamed him. He commissioned Guanqiu Jian
Guanqiu Jian
Guanqiu Jian , style name Zhonggong , was a military general of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history.-Biography:...
to prepare for an attack, and then ordered Gongsun to come to Luoyang for an official visit. Gongsun refused and declared independence. Guanqiu attacked him, but was stopped by torrential rains. Gongsun then declared himself the Prince of Yan and entered into alliances with the Xianbei
Xianbei
The Xianbei were a significant Mongolic nomadic people residing in Manchuria, Inner Mongolia and eastern Mongolia. The title “Khan” was first used among the Xianbei.-Origins:...
tribes to harass Cao Wei's borders.
The following year, Cao Rui sent Sima Yi instead and gave him 40,000 men. Gongsun, upon hearing this, again requested aid from Eastern Wu. Sun, angry at Gongsun's last betrayal, pretended to agree, but did not send Gongsun any actual help. Sima's expeditory force was, as Guanqiu's, also initially halted by torrential rains, but Sima waited out the rains and surrounded Gongsun's capital of Xiangping (襄平, in modern Liaoyang
Liaoyang
Liaoyang is a city in China, Liaoning province, located in the middle of the Liaodong Peninsula. The city is situated on the T'ai-tzu River and forms with Anshan a built up area of 2,057,200 inhabitants in 2010....
, Liaoning
Liaoning
' is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the northeast of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "辽" , a name taken from the Liao River that flows through the province. "Níng" means "peace"...
), starving Gongsun's troops. After nearly three months of siege, Xiangping fell, and Gongsun fled, but was captured and executed by Sima. Liaodong became part of Cao Wei's domain.
Building projects and collection of concubines
Almost immediately after Cao Rui ascended the throne, he started out large scale palace and temple-building projects. Part of it was to be expected—the Luoyang palaces had been remnants of the ones not destroyed by Dong ZhuoDong Zhuo
Dong Zhuo was a politician and warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He seized control of the capital city Luoyang in 189 when it was in a state of turmoil following the death of Emperor Ling and a clash between the eunuch faction and some court officials led by...
, and the temples were needed for the cults of his ancestors. However, he went beyond the minimally required, and continued to build temples and palaces throughout the rest of his reign, severely draining the imperial treasury. While he occasionally halted projects at the officials' behest, the projects would restart after brief breaks. He not only built palaces in Luoyang, but also built a palace in Xuchang
Xuchang
Xuchang is a prefecture-level city in central Henan province in Central China. It borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the northwest, Kaifeng to the northeast, Zhoukou to the east, Luohe to the southeast, and Pingdingshan to the southwest....
. In 237, he further moved many of the magnificent statues and monuments that were commissioned by Emperor Wu of Han
Emperor Wu of Han
Emperor Wu of Han , , personal name Liu Che , was the seventh emperor of the Han Dynasty of China, ruling from 141 BC to 87 BC. Emperor Wu is best remembered for the vast territorial expansion that occurred under his reign, as well as the strong and centralized Confucian state he organized...
from Chang'an to Luoyang, costing great expenses and lives. He further built gigantic bronze statues of his own and placed them on a man-made hill inside his palace, surrounded by rare trees and plants and populated by rare animals.
Cao Rui was also increasing his collection of women, as his concubines and ladies in waiting numbered thousands. His palace-building projects might have been with intent to house them. In 237, he even ordered that beautiful married women all be formally seized unless their husbands were able to ransom them, and that they would be married to soldiers instead—but that the most beautiful among them would become his concubines. Despite some officials' protestations, this decree was apparently carried out, much to the distress of his people.
Marriages, succession issues and death
When Cao Rui became emperor, it was commonly expected that his wife, Princess Yu, would be created empress, but she was not. Rather, he created a favorite concubine, Consort MaoEmpress Mao (Ming)
Empress Mao , personal name unknown, formally known as Empress Mingdao , was an empress of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. She was married to Cao Rui , the second emperor of Cao Wei.Empress Mao became a concubine of Cao Rui's during the reign of his father, Cao Pi...
, empress in 227. Princess Yu was exiled back to their original palace. He loved Empress Mao dearly, and a number of her relatives, including her father and brother, became honored officials (but without actual powers).
Despite his collection of women, however, Cao Rui was without any son who survived infancy. He adopted two sons to be his own -- Cao Fang
Cao Fang
Cao Fang , formally known as Duke Li of Shaoling, was the third emperor of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He retained the title Prince of Qi after he was deposed by the regent Sima Shi...
and Cao Xun
Cao Xun
Cao Xun was an adopted son of Cao Rui, an emperor of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. It is not known who his birth parents were, because Cao Rui deliberately kept their identities secrets, although it was likely that he was adopted from within the imperial...
, whom he created princes in 235. (It is usually accepted that they were sons of his cousins, although the exact parentage is not clear.) In 237, Cao Rui took the unprecedented (and unrepeated in Chinese history) action of setting his own temple name of Liezu and ordering that his temple, in the future, never to be torn down. (Based on Confucian regulations, except for the founder of the dynasty, rulers' temples would be destroyed after six generations.) He carried out these actions apparently in apprehension that he would be given an unflattering temple name (or none at all) and that his temple would eventually be destroyed, due to his lack of biological issue and unclear origin.
By 237, Cao Rui's favorite was no longer Empress Mao, but Consort Guo
Empress Guo (Ming)
Empress Guo , personal name unknown, formally known as Empress Mingyuan , was an empress of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. She was married to Cao Rui , the second emperor of Cao Wei; she was his third wife and second empress...
. Once, when Cao Rui was attending a feast hosted by Consort Guo, Consort Guo requested that Empress Mao be invited to join as well, but Cao Rui refused and further ordered that no news about the feast is to be given to Empess Mao. However, the news leaked, and Empress Mao talked about the feast with him anyway. He became exceedingly angry, and killed a number of his attendants whom he suspected of leaking the news to Empress Mao, and, inexplicably, ordered Empress Mao to commit suicide, even though she was still buried with honors due an empress, and her family remained honored.
In 238, Cao Rui grew ill. He created Consort Guo empress in preparation of allowing her to become empress dowager after his death. He initially wanted to entrust his adopted son, Cao Fang the Prince of Qi, to his uncle Cao Yu (曹宇), to serve as the lead regent, along with Xiahou Xian (夏侯獻), Cao Shuang
Cao Shuang
Cao Shuang , style name Zhaobo , was a military general, politician and regent of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He was the son of Cao Zhen...
, Cao Zhao (曹肇), and Qin Lang (秦朗). However, his trusted officials Liu Fang (劉放) and Sun Zi (孫資) were unfriendly with Xiahou and Cao Zhao and were apprehensive about their becoming regents, and managed to persuade him to make Cao Shuang (with whom they were friendly) and Sima Yi regents instead. Cao Yu, Cao Zhao, and Qin were excluded from the regency. In spring of 239, Cao Rui created the seven-year-old Cao Fang crown prince, and died the same day of that creation. Cao Fang succeeded him as emperor.
Family
- Father: Cao PiCao PiCao Pi , formally known as Emperor Wen of Wei, was the first emperor of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. Born in Qiao County, Pei Commandery , he was the second son of the late Han Dynasty warlord Cao Cao.Cao Pi, like his father, was a poet...
or Yuan XiYuan XiYuan Xi was the second son of the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty era of Chinese history.Yuan was described in Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms as "intelligent but weak and indecisive", in contrast to his older brother Yuan Tan, who was described as...
- Mother: Lady Zhen
- Spouses:
- Empress MaoEmpress Mao (Ming)Empress Mao , personal name unknown, formally known as Empress Mingdao , was an empress of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. She was married to Cao Rui , the second emperor of Cao Wei.Empress Mao became a concubine of Cao Rui's during the reign of his father, Cao Pi...
- Empress GuoEmpress Guo (Ming)Empress Guo , personal name unknown, formally known as Empress Mingyuan , was an empress of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. She was married to Cao Rui , the second emperor of Cao Wei; she was his third wife and second empress...
- Concubine Yu
- Empress Mao
- Children:
- Sons:
- Cao Jiong (曹冏), instated as Prince of Qinghe in 226, died in the same year
- Cao Mu (曹穆), instated as Prince of Fanyang in 228, died in 229
- Cao Yin (曹殷) born in 231, died in 232, posthumously granted title Prince Ai of Anping
- Daughters:
- Cao Shu (曹淑), died in 232 posthumously instated as Princess Yi of Pingyuan
- Princess Qichang (齊長公主), personal name unknown, married Li Tao (son of Li Feng), later married Ren Kai
- Adopted children:
- Cao XunCao XunCao Xun was an adopted son of Cao Rui, an emperor of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. It is not known who his birth parents were, because Cao Rui deliberately kept their identities secrets, although it was likely that he was adopted from within the imperial...
, born in 231, instated as Prince of Qin in 235, died in 244 - Cao FangCao FangCao Fang , formally known as Duke Li of Shaoling, was the third emperor of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He retained the title Prince of Qi after he was deposed by the regent Sima Shi...
, son of Cao Kai, instated as Prince of Qi in 235 and crown prince in 239, became third emperor of Cao Wei later
- Cao Xun
- Sons: