By-election
Encyclopedia
A by-election is an election
held to fill a political office that has become vacant between regularly scheduled elections.
Usually, a by-election occurs when the incumbent has died or resigned, but it may also occur when the incumbent becomes ineligible to continue in office, for example because of a recall
, ennoblement
, or a sufficiently serious criminal conviction. By-elections have also been called as a result of a constituency election being invalidated by voting irregularities.
Historically, members of some parliaments were required to seek re-election upon being appointed to a ministerial post. The subsequent by-elections were termed ministerial by-elections. These by-elections were usually a formality as they were normally, but not always, uncontested by opposition parties. The requirement for Members of Parliament
(MPs) to resign their seats and re-offer upon being appointed to Cabinet
was done away with in most Westminster system
s by the mid-20th century as an anachronism.
or without a runoff round. This includes most Commonwealth
countries, such as the United Kingdom
, Canada
, and Pakistan
, as well as non-Commonwealth countries such as France
. In the United States they are called special elections, and are held when a seat in Congress
, a state legislature or at the local level has become vacant.
constituency becomes vacant, the consequences vary. For example, a by-election may be held to fill just the vacancy or all the seats in the constituency become up for grabs in the by-election held.
Scotland
and New Zealand
still hold by-elections, despite having adopted the additional member system
, in which members are also chosen by party lists. In Scotland's case though, by-elections only take place when the MSP had been elected to represent a single member constituency, for example, the death of Donald Dewar
resulted in a by-election for the constituency of Glasgow Anniesland
while the death of Bashir Ahmad
resulted in the next candidate on the party list being selected (in this case Anne McLaughlin
The Republic of Ireland
holds by-elections despite electing members in multi-member constituencies by the single transferable vote
.
Alternatives to holding a by-election include:
For the Australian Senate (where each State forms a multi-seat constituency voting by single transferable vote
), the State Parliament appoints a replacement; however, in 1977 a referendum amended the Constitution to require that the person appointed must belong to the same political party (if any) as the Senator originally elected to that seat.
ary systems, party discipline is strong enough so that the one common scenario for a vote of no confidence to occur is after the governing party loses enough by-elections to become a minority government
. Examples include the Labour government of James Callaghan 1976-79
and the Conservative government of John Major 1992-7
. In the United States, Scott Brown's election
in 2010 ended the filibuster
-proof majority formerly enjoyed by Democrats
.
By-elections can also be important if a minority party needs to gain one or more seats in order to gain official party status
or the balance of power
in a minority or coalition situation. For example, Andrea Horwath
's win in an Ontario
provincial by-election in 2004 allowed the Ontario NDP
to regain official party status with important results in terms of parliamentary privileges and funding.
's 1989 by-election victory in Beaver River
was seen as evidence that the newly formed Reform Party of Canada
would be a serious political contender and that it posed a serious political threat for the ruling Progressive Conservatives
. It also provided important momentum for the new party. Similarly, the upset 1960 by-election victory of Walter Pitman
in Peterborough
as a "New Party
" candidate was seen as a significant boost for the movement to replace the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation
with an unnamed "New Party" which would be integrated with the labour movement. Pitman's candidacy in a riding in which the CCF was traditionally weak was seen as a test of this concept and his upset victory was used to convince the CCF and the labour movement to proceed with the founding of the New Democratic Party
(NDP).
By-elections may occur singly, or in small bunches, especially if the authority responsible for calling them has discretion over the timing and can procrastinate. They are sometimes bunched to save money as holding multiple by-elections is likely to cost more than holding a by-election to fill the vacancies all at once. In Canada, in 1978, 15 by-elections were held on a single date, restoring the House of Commons to 264 members. The media called it a "mini-election", a test of the Liberal government's popularity with a general election due in less than a year. The 15 districts stretched from Newfoundland to British Columbia, and produced some unexpected results, for example, an NDP candidate winning in Newfoundland for the first time.
was appointed to Pierre Trudeau
's Liberal cabinet directly from the private sector and tried to enter parliament through a by-election in Hochelaga
. Juneau was upset by the Progressive Conservative candidate and resigned from cabinet ten days after his by-election defeat.
General Andrew McNaughton
was appointed to Cabinet as Minister of Defence on November 1, 1944 without having a seat in parliament after his predecessor resigned during the Conscription Crisis of 1944
. A by-election was arranged in Grey North
which the opposition Progressive Conservative party contested. The major campaign issue became the government's policy of "limited conscription" during World War II which McNaughton supported and which the Conservatives counterposed with a call for "full conscription". McNaughton was upset in the February 5, 1945 by-election. As a result, with confidence in his government undermined, Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King
called the 1945 federal election
several weeks later when he had originally intended to wait until after the end of the war. McNaughton sought a seat in the federal election and resigned after he was again defeated.
In 1942, new Conservative Party leader Arthur Meighen
sought to enter the Canadian House of Commons through a by-election in York South
. His surprise defeat at the hand of Joseph Noseworthy of the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation
ended his political career, and may also have been a factor in the Conservative Party's decision to move to the left and rebrand itself the Progressive Conservative Party under Meighen's replacement. Noseworthy's victory was also a significant breakthrough for the CCF giving it credibility as a national party where it has previously been seen as a Western Canadian regional protest party.
In the Canadian province of Ontario, John Tory
, leader of the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario
ran in a 2009 by-election in Haliburton—Kawartha Lakes—Brock
, after he convinced one of his caucus members to step down, in hopes of re-entering the Ontario legislature. His by-election defeat resulted in his resignation as party leader.
A Massachusetts special Senate election
held in January 2010 produced a significant upset when Republican
Scott Brown
won the United States Senate
seat formerly held for 48 years by Democratic Party
stalwart Ted Kennedy
. Republicans term the result the "Massachusetts Miracle" and argue that it is a harbinger of a revival in the party's fortunes.
there were fifteen by-elections held on 23 January 1986, to fill vacancies in the Parliament of the United Kingdom
caused by the resignation in December 1985 of all sitting Unionist Members of Parliament (MPs). The MPs, from the Ulster Unionist Party
, Democratic Unionist Party
and Ulster Popular Unionist Party
, did this to highlight their opposition to the Anglo-Irish Agreement
. Each of their parties agreed not to contest seats previously held by the others, and each outgoing MP stood for re-election. All but one of the Unionists were re-elected, many with extremely large majorities, against pro-Agreement or in some cases Irish Republican opponents. In some seats, a fictitious candidate named after Peter Barry, the Irish foreign minister
appeared on the ballot paper. The largest of all majorities went to Ian Paisley
in North Antrim
. He won 97.4% of the vote, the highest percentage polled by any candidate in a UK by-election since the 1940 Middleton and Prestwich by-election
.
The sole exception to this pattern was the Newry and Armagh by-election, where Seamus Mallon
of the Irish nationalist
and pro Anglo-Irish Agreement Social Democratic and Labour Party
(SDLP) was able to take the seat. The results of the fifteen by-elections were cited by Unionists as a rejection of the Agreement by the Northern Irish electorate, but the action did not succeed in persuading the government of Margaret Thatcher
to repeal the accord.
Territory-wide by-elections were held on 16 May 2010 in Hong Kong
. The by-elections were triggered by the resignation of five members of the Legislative Council, one each from the territory's five constituencies, three of them were representing the League of Social Democrats
, and the other two from the Civic Party
. It was meant to be a de facto referendum on the territory's electoral reform.
30 seats in the 60-seat legislature are elected from "geographical constituencies". As in 2010 there were five multi-member constituencies. Elections are held using the largest remainder method
of the proportional representation
system. A by-election is necessary whenever a seat is vacant.
Election
An election is a formal decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual to hold public office. Elections have been the usual mechanism by which modern representative democracy operates since the 17th century. Elections may fill offices in the legislature, sometimes in the...
held to fill a political office that has become vacant between regularly scheduled elections.
Usually, a by-election occurs when the incumbent has died or resigned, but it may also occur when the incumbent becomes ineligible to continue in office, for example because of a recall
Recall election
A recall election is a procedure by which voters can remove an elected official from office through a direct vote before his or her term has ended...
, ennoblement
Nobility
Nobility is a social class which possesses more acknowledged privileges or eminence than members of most other classes in a society, membership therein typically being hereditary. The privileges associated with nobility may constitute substantial advantages over or relative to non-nobles, or may be...
, or a sufficiently serious criminal conviction. By-elections have also been called as a result of a constituency election being invalidated by voting irregularities.
Historically, members of some parliaments were required to seek re-election upon being appointed to a ministerial post. The subsequent by-elections were termed ministerial by-elections. These by-elections were usually a formality as they were normally, but not always, uncontested by opposition parties. The requirement for Members of Parliament
Member of Parliament
A Member of Parliament is a representative of the voters to a :parliament. In many countries with bicameral parliaments, the term applies specifically to members of the lower house, as upper houses often have a different title, such as senate, and thus also have different titles for its members,...
(MPs) to resign their seats and re-offer upon being appointed to Cabinet
Cabinet (government)
A Cabinet is a body of high ranking government officials, typically representing the executive branch. It can also sometimes be referred to as the Council of Ministers, an Executive Council, or an Executive Committee.- Overview :...
was done away with in most Westminster system
Westminster System
The Westminster system is a democratic parliamentary system of government modelled after the politics of the United Kingdom. This term comes from the Palace of Westminster, the seat of the Parliament of the United Kingdom....
s by the mid-20th century as an anachronism.
In single-member constituencies
By-elections are held in most nations that elect their parliaments through single-member constituencies, whether withTwo-round system
The two-round system is a voting system used to elect a single winner where the voter casts a single vote for their chosen candidate...
or without a runoff round. This includes most Commonwealth
Commonwealth of Nations
The Commonwealth of Nations, normally referred to as the Commonwealth and formerly known as the British Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of fifty-four independent member states...
countries, such as the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
, Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
, and Pakistan
Pakistan
Pakistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is a sovereign state in South Asia. It has a coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by Afghanistan and Iran in the west, India in the east and China in the far northeast. In the north, Tajikistan...
, as well as non-Commonwealth countries such as France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
. In the United States they are called special elections, and are held when a seat in Congress
United States Congress
The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C....
, a state legislature or at the local level has become vacant.
In multi-member constituencies
When one seat in a proportional representationProportional representation
Proportional representation is a concept in voting systems used to elect an assembly or council. PR means that the number of seats won by a party or group of candidates is proportionate to the number of votes received. For example, under a PR voting system if 30% of voters support a particular...
constituency becomes vacant, the consequences vary. For example, a by-election may be held to fill just the vacancy or all the seats in the constituency become up for grabs in the by-election held.
Scotland
Scotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
and New Zealand
New Zealand
New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...
still hold by-elections, despite having adopted the additional member system
Additional Member System
The Additional Member System is the term used in the United Kingdom for the mixed member proportional representation voting system used in Scotland, Wales and the London Assembly....
, in which members are also chosen by party lists. In Scotland's case though, by-elections only take place when the MSP had been elected to represent a single member constituency, for example, the death of Donald Dewar
Donald Dewar
Donald Campbell Dewar was a British politician who served as a Labour Party Member of Parliament in Scotland from 1966-1970, and then again from 1978 until his death in 2000. He served in Tony Blair's cabinet as Secretary of State for Scotland from 1997-1999 and was instrumental in the creation...
resulted in a by-election for the constituency of Glasgow Anniesland
Glasgow Anniesland
Glasgow Anniesland may mean or refer to:* Glasgow Anniesland * Glasgow Anniesland...
while the death of Bashir Ahmad
Bashir Ahmad
Bashir Ahmad may refer to:*Bashir Ahmad , Lollywood playback singer*Bashir Ahmad , Karachi-born Member of the Scottish Parliament*Bashir Ahmad , 'surprise' visitor to the U.S...
resulted in the next candidate on the party list being selected (in this case Anne McLaughlin
Anne McLaughlin
Anne McLaughlin is a Scottish National Party politician and was a Member of the Scottish Parliament for Glasgow between 2009 and 2011...
The Republic of Ireland
Republic of Ireland
Ireland , described as the Republic of Ireland , is a sovereign state in Europe occupying approximately five-sixths of the island of the same name. Its capital is Dublin. Ireland, which had a population of 4.58 million in 2011, is a constitutional republic governed as a parliamentary democracy,...
holds by-elections despite electing members in multi-member constituencies by the single transferable vote
Single transferable vote
The single transferable vote is a voting system designed to achieve proportional representation through preferential voting. Under STV, an elector's vote is initially allocated to his or her most preferred candidate, and then, after candidates have been either elected or eliminated, any surplus or...
.
Alternatives to holding a by-election include:
- having a recount of the votes of the vacating member
- choosing from those losing candidates from the previous election, who choose to contest the recount to fill the vacancy, as in TasmaniaTasmaniaTasmania is an Australian island and state. It is south of the continent, separated by Bass Strait. The state includes the island of Tasmania—the 26th largest island in the world—and the surrounding islands. The state has a population of 507,626 , of whom almost half reside in the greater Hobart...
or the Australian Capital TerritoryAustralian Capital TerritoryThe Australian Capital Territory, often abbreviated ACT, is the capital territory of the Commonwealth of Australia and is the smallest self-governing internal territory...
, - keeping the seat vacant until the next general electionGeneral electionIn a parliamentary political system, a general election is an election in which all or most members of a given political body are chosen. The term is usually used to refer to elections held for a nation's primary legislative body, as distinguished from by-elections and local elections.The term...
- nominating another candidate with the same affiliation as the one whose seat has become vacant – typically, in list systems, the next candidate on the party list.
For the Australian Senate (where each State forms a multi-seat constituency voting by single transferable vote
Single transferable vote
The single transferable vote is a voting system designed to achieve proportional representation through preferential voting. Under STV, an elector's vote is initially allocated to his or her most preferred candidate, and then, after candidates have been either elected or eliminated, any surplus or...
), the State Parliament appoints a replacement; however, in 1977 a referendum amended the Constitution to require that the person appointed must belong to the same political party (if any) as the Senator originally elected to that seat.
Consequences
By-elections can become crucial when the ruling party has only a small margin. In parliamentParliament
A parliament is a legislature, especially in those countries whose system of government is based on the Westminster system modeled after that of the United Kingdom. The name is derived from the French , the action of parler : a parlement is a discussion. The term came to mean a meeting at which...
ary systems, party discipline is strong enough so that the one common scenario for a vote of no confidence to occur is after the governing party loses enough by-elections to become a minority government
Minority government
A minority government or a minority cabinet is a cabinet of a parliamentary system formed when a political party or coalition of parties does not have a majority of overall seats in the parliament but is sworn into government to break a Hung Parliament election result. It is also known as a...
. Examples include the Labour government of James Callaghan 1976-79
Callaghan Ministry
This is the Cabinet list for former Prime Minister James Callaghan. His Cabinet was formed on 5 April 1976 after he took over from Harold Wilson and ended, upon his resignation, on 4 May 1979.-The Ministry:-See also:...
and the Conservative government of John Major 1992-7
Major Ministry
John Major was the Conservative Prime Minister of the United Kingdom for 6½ years from 28 November 1990 to 2 May 1997. He was first appointed Prime Minister having succeeded Margaret Thatcher as leader of the Conservative Party...
. In the United States, Scott Brown's election
United States Senate special election in Massachusetts, 2010
The 2010 United States Senate special election in Massachusetts was a special election held on January 19, 2010, in order to fill the Massachusetts Class I United States Senate seat for the remainder of the term ending January 3, 2013...
in 2010 ended the filibuster
Filibuster
A filibuster is a type of parliamentary procedure. Specifically, it is the right of an individual to extend debate, allowing a lone member to delay or entirely prevent a vote on a given proposal...
-proof majority formerly enjoyed by Democrats
Democratic Party (United States)
The Democratic Party is one of two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The party's socially liberal and progressive platform is largely considered center-left in the U.S. political spectrum. The party has the lengthiest record of continuous...
.
By-elections can also be important if a minority party needs to gain one or more seats in order to gain official party status
Official party status
Official party status refers to the Canadian practice of recognizing political parties in the Parliament of Canada and the provincial legislatures. The type of recognition and threshold needed to obtain it varies...
or the balance of power
Balance of power (parliament)
In parliamentary politics, the term balance of power sometimes describes the pragmatic mechanism exercised by a minor political party or other grouping whose guaranteed support may enable an otherwise minority government to obtain and hold office...
in a minority or coalition situation. For example, Andrea Horwath
Andrea Horwath
Andrea Horwath , is a Canadian activist and politician. She is the Leader of the Ontario New Democratic Party in Canada. She is a member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario, representing the riding of Hamilton Centre, and was chosen as the party's leader at its 2009 leadership convention.She is...
's win in an Ontario
Ontario
Ontario is a province of Canada, located in east-central Canada. It is Canada's most populous province and second largest in total area. It is home to the nation's most populous city, Toronto, and the nation's capital, Ottawa....
provincial by-election in 2004 allowed the Ontario NDP
Ontario New Democratic Party
The Ontario New Democratic Party or , formally known as New Democratic Party of Ontario, is a social democratic political party in Ontario, Canada. It is a provincial section of the federal New Democratic Party. It was formed in October 1961, a few months after the federal party. The ONDP had its...
to regain official party status with important results in terms of parliamentary privileges and funding.
As harbingers and breakthroughs
By-election upsets can have a psychological impact by creating a sense of momentum for one party or a sense of impending defeat for a government. Deborah GreyDeborah Grey
Deborah Cleland Grey, OC, sometimes called Deb Grey is a former Canadian Member of Parliament from Alberta for the Reform Party of Canada, Canadian Alliance and Conservative Party of Canada....
's 1989 by-election victory in Beaver River
Beaver River (electoral district)
Beaver River was a federal electoral district represented in the Canadian House of Commons from 1988 to 1997.It was located in the province of Alberta. This riding was created in 1987, and was first used in the federal election of 1988...
was seen as evidence that the newly formed Reform Party of Canada
Reform Party of Canada
The Reform Party of Canada was a Canadian federal political party that existed from 1987 to 2000. It was originally founded as a Western Canada-based protest party, but attempted to expand eastward in the 1990s. It viewed itself as a populist party....
would be a serious political contender and that it posed a serious political threat for the ruling Progressive Conservatives
Progressive Conservative Party of Canada
The Progressive Conservative Party of Canada was a Canadian political party with a centre-right stance on economic issues and, after the 1970s, a centrist stance on social issues....
. It also provided important momentum for the new party. Similarly, the upset 1960 by-election victory of Walter Pitman
Walter Pitman
Walter George Pitman, OC, O.Ont is an educator and former politician in Ontario, Canada.Born in Toronto, Ontario, he received a Bachelor of Arts in 1952 and a Master of Arts in 1954 from the University of Toronto....
in Peterborough
Peterborough (electoral district)
Peterborough is a federal electoral district in Ontario, Canada, that has been represented in the Canadian House of Commons since 1953.The riding's borders have differed slightly since its creation in 1953, but has always included most or all of Peterborough County and its county seat of...
as a "New Party
New Party (Canada)
New Party was the interim name used by the new political party being established in Canada from 1958 to 1961 by the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation and the Canadian Labour Congress , which eventually defined itself as a social democratic party...
" candidate was seen as a significant boost for the movement to replace the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation
Co-operative Commonwealth Federation
The Co-operative Commonwealth Federation was a Canadian political party founded in 1932 in Calgary, Alberta, by a number of socialist, farm, co-operative and labour groups, and the League for Social Reconstruction...
with an unnamed "New Party" which would be integrated with the labour movement. Pitman's candidacy in a riding in which the CCF was traditionally weak was seen as a test of this concept and his upset victory was used to convince the CCF and the labour movement to proceed with the founding of the New Democratic Party
New Democratic Party
The New Democratic Party , commonly referred to as the NDP, is a federal social-democratic political party in Canada. The interim leader of the NDP is Nycole Turmel who was appointed to the position due to the illness of Jack Layton, who died on August 22, 2011. The provincial wings of the NDP in...
(NDP).
By-elections may occur singly, or in small bunches, especially if the authority responsible for calling them has discretion over the timing and can procrastinate. They are sometimes bunched to save money as holding multiple by-elections is likely to cost more than holding a by-election to fill the vacancies all at once. In Canada, in 1978, 15 by-elections were held on a single date, restoring the House of Commons to 264 members. The media called it a "mini-election", a test of the Liberal government's popularity with a general election due in less than a year. The 15 districts stretched from Newfoundland to British Columbia, and produced some unexpected results, for example, an NDP candidate winning in Newfoundland for the first time.
Upsets
In Canada, the most recent example of a cabinet minister appointed from outside of parliament having to resign after losing a by-election was in 1975 when Minister of Communications Pierre JuneauPierre Juneau
Pierre Juneau, PC, OC, born , is a retired film and broadcast executive and one-time member of the Canadian Cabinet.He was born in Verdun, now part of Montreal, to a working class family...
was appointed to Pierre Trudeau
Pierre Trudeau
Joseph Philippe Pierre Yves Elliott Trudeau, , usually known as Pierre Trudeau or Pierre Elliott Trudeau, was the 15th Prime Minister of Canada from April 20, 1968 to June 4, 1979, and again from March 3, 1980 to June 30, 1984.Trudeau began his political career campaigning for socialist ideals,...
's Liberal cabinet directly from the private sector and tried to enter parliament through a by-election in Hochelaga
Hochelaga (electoral district)
Hochelaga is a federal electoral district in Quebec, Canada, that has been represented in the Canadian House of Commons from 1867 to 1988 and since 2004...
. Juneau was upset by the Progressive Conservative candidate and resigned from cabinet ten days after his by-election defeat.
General Andrew McNaughton
Andrew McNaughton
General Andrew George Latta McNaughton, CH, CB, CMG, DSO, CD, PC was a Canadian army officer, politician and diplomat.- Early life :...
was appointed to Cabinet as Minister of Defence on November 1, 1944 without having a seat in parliament after his predecessor resigned during the Conscription Crisis of 1944
Conscription Crisis of 1944
The Conscription Crisis of 1944 was a political and military crisis following the introduction of forced military service in Canada during World War II. It was similar to the Conscription Crisis of 1917, but was not as politically damaging....
. A by-election was arranged in Grey North
Grey North
Grey North was a federal electoral district represented in the Canadian House of Commons from 1867 to 1968. It was located in the province of Ontario. It was created by the British North America Act of 1867, which divided the County of Grey into two ridings: Grey South and Grey North...
which the opposition Progressive Conservative party contested. The major campaign issue became the government's policy of "limited conscription" during World War II which McNaughton supported and which the Conservatives counterposed with a call for "full conscription". McNaughton was upset in the February 5, 1945 by-election. As a result, with confidence in his government undermined, Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King
William Lyon Mackenzie King
William Lyon Mackenzie King, PC, OM, CMG was the dominant Canadian political leader from the 1920s through the 1940s. He served as the tenth Prime Minister of Canada from December 29, 1921 to June 28, 1926; from September 25, 1926 to August 7, 1930; and from October 23, 1935 to November 15, 1948...
called the 1945 federal election
Canadian federal election, 1945
The Canadian federal election of 1945 was the 20th general election in Canadian history. It was held June 11, 1945 to elect members of the Canadian House of Commons of the 20th Parliament of Canada...
several weeks later when he had originally intended to wait until after the end of the war. McNaughton sought a seat in the federal election and resigned after he was again defeated.
In 1942, new Conservative Party leader Arthur Meighen
Arthur Meighen
Arthur Meighen, PC, QC was a Canadian lawyer and politician. He served two terms as the ninth Prime Minister of Canada: from July 10, 1920 to December 29, 1921; and from June 29 to September 25, 1926. He was the first Prime Minister born after Confederation, and the only one to represent a riding...
sought to enter the Canadian House of Commons through a by-election in York South
York South
York South was an electoral district in Ontario, Canada, that was represented in the Canadian House of Commons from 1904 to 1979, and in the Legislative Assembly of Ontario from 1926 to 1999....
. His surprise defeat at the hand of Joseph Noseworthy of the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation
Co-operative Commonwealth Federation
The Co-operative Commonwealth Federation was a Canadian political party founded in 1932 in Calgary, Alberta, by a number of socialist, farm, co-operative and labour groups, and the League for Social Reconstruction...
ended his political career, and may also have been a factor in the Conservative Party's decision to move to the left and rebrand itself the Progressive Conservative Party under Meighen's replacement. Noseworthy's victory was also a significant breakthrough for the CCF giving it credibility as a national party where it has previously been seen as a Western Canadian regional protest party.
In the Canadian province of Ontario, John Tory
John Tory
John Howard Tory is a Canadian businessman, political activist, former leader of the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario, former Member of Provincial Parliament and broadcaster...
, leader of the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario
Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario
The Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario , is a right-of-centre political party in Ontario, Canada. The party was known for many years as "Ontario's natural governing party." It has ruled the province for 80 of the years since Confederation, including an uninterrupted run from 1943 to 1985...
ran in a 2009 by-election in Haliburton—Kawartha Lakes—Brock
Haliburton—Kawartha Lakes—Brock (provincial electoral district)
Haliburton—Kawartha Lakes—Brock is a provincial electoral district in Central Ontario, Canada. It elects one member to the Legislative Assembly of Ontario....
, after he convinced one of his caucus members to step down, in hopes of re-entering the Ontario legislature. His by-election defeat resulted in his resignation as party leader.
A Massachusetts special Senate election
United States Senate special election in Massachusetts, 2010
The 2010 United States Senate special election in Massachusetts was a special election held on January 19, 2010, in order to fill the Massachusetts Class I United States Senate seat for the remainder of the term ending January 3, 2013...
held in January 2010 produced a significant upset when Republican
Republican Party (United States)
The Republican Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Democratic Party. Founded by anti-slavery expansion activists in 1854, it is often called the GOP . The party's platform generally reflects American conservatism in the U.S...
Scott Brown
Scott Brown
Scott Brown is a United States senator.Scott Brown may also refer to:-Sportsmen:*Scott Brown , American college football coach of Kentucky State...
won the United States Senate
United States Senate
The United States Senate is the upper house of the bicameral legislature of the United States, and together with the United States House of Representatives comprises the United States Congress. The composition and powers of the Senate are established in Article One of the U.S. Constitution. Each...
seat formerly held for 48 years by Democratic Party
Democratic Party (United States)
The Democratic Party is one of two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The party's socially liberal and progressive platform is largely considered center-left in the U.S. political spectrum. The party has the lengthiest record of continuous...
stalwart Ted Kennedy
Ted Kennedy
Edward Moore "Ted" Kennedy was a United States Senator from Massachusetts and a member of the Democratic Party. Serving almost 47 years, he was the second most senior member of the Senate when he died and is the fourth-longest-serving senator in United States history...
. Republicans term the result the "Massachusetts Miracle" and argue that it is a harbinger of a revival in the party's fortunes.
1986 Northern Ireland by-elections
In Northern IrelandNorthern Ireland
Northern Ireland is one of the four countries of the United Kingdom. Situated in the north-east of the island of Ireland, it shares a border with the Republic of Ireland to the south and west...
there were fifteen by-elections held on 23 January 1986, to fill vacancies in the Parliament of the United Kingdom
Parliament of the United Kingdom
The Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the supreme legislative body in the United Kingdom, British Crown dependencies and British overseas territories, located in London...
caused by the resignation in December 1985 of all sitting Unionist Members of Parliament (MPs). The MPs, from the Ulster Unionist Party
Ulster Unionist Party
The Ulster Unionist Party – sometimes referred to as the Official Unionist Party or, in a historic sense, simply the Unionist Party – is the more moderate of the two main unionist political parties in Northern Ireland...
, Democratic Unionist Party
Democratic Unionist Party
The Democratic Unionist Party is the larger of the two main unionist political parties in Northern Ireland. Founded by Ian Paisley and currently led by Peter Robinson, it is currently the largest party in the Northern Ireland Assembly and the fourth-largest party in the House of Commons of the...
and Ulster Popular Unionist Party
Ulster Popular Unionist Party
The Ulster Popular Unionist Party was a unionist political party in Northern Ireland. It was founded in 1980 by James Kilfedder, independent Unionist Member of Parliament for North Down, who led the party until his death in 1995....
, did this to highlight their opposition to the Anglo-Irish Agreement
Anglo-Irish Agreement
The Anglo-Irish Agreement was an agreement between the United Kingdom and Ireland which aimed to help bring an end to the Troubles in Northern Ireland...
. Each of their parties agreed not to contest seats previously held by the others, and each outgoing MP stood for re-election. All but one of the Unionists were re-elected, many with extremely large majorities, against pro-Agreement or in some cases Irish Republican opponents. In some seats, a fictitious candidate named after Peter Barry, the Irish foreign minister
Foreign minister
A Minister of Foreign Affairs, or foreign minister, is a cabinet minister who helps form the foreign policy of a sovereign state. The foreign minister is often regarded as the most senior ministerial position below that of the head of government . It is often granted to the deputy prime minister in...
appeared on the ballot paper. The largest of all majorities went to Ian Paisley
Ian Paisley
Ian Richard Kyle Paisley, Baron Bannside, PC is a politician and church minister in Northern Ireland. As the leader of the Democratic Unionist Party , he and Sinn Féin's Martin McGuinness were elected First Minister and deputy First Minister respectively on 8 May 2007.In addition to co-founding...
in North Antrim
North Antrim (UK Parliament constituency)
North Antrim is a Parliamentary Constituency in the United Kingdom House of Commons. Its current member is Ian Paisley Jr.-Boundaries:North Antrim has always been a county constituency comprising the northern part of County Antrim in the north-east of Northern Ireland...
. He won 97.4% of the vote, the highest percentage polled by any candidate in a UK by-election since the 1940 Middleton and Prestwich by-election
Middleton and Prestwich by-election, 1940
The Middleton and Prestwich by-election, 1940 was held for the Middleton and Prestwich constituency on 22 May 1940.The by-election was held during World War II, and the five largest political parties – Conservative, Labour, Liberal, National Labour and National Liberal – were all members of the...
.
The sole exception to this pattern was the Newry and Armagh by-election, where Seamus Mallon
Seamus Mallon
Seamus Frederick Mallon born 17 August 1936, in Markethill, County Armagh, is an Irish politician and former Deputy Leader of the nationalist Social Democratic and Labour Party in Northern Ireland...
of the Irish nationalist
Irish nationalism
Irish nationalism manifests itself in political and social movements and in sentiment inspired by a love for Irish culture, language and history, and as a sense of pride in Ireland and in the Irish people...
and pro Anglo-Irish Agreement Social Democratic and Labour Party
Social Democratic and Labour Party
The Social Democratic and Labour Party is a social-democratic, Irish nationalist political party in Northern Ireland. Its basic party platform advocates Irish reunification, and the further devolution of powers while Northern Ireland remains part of the United Kingdom...
(SDLP) was able to take the seat. The results of the fifteen by-elections were cited by Unionists as a rejection of the Agreement by the Northern Irish electorate, but the action did not succeed in persuading the government of Margaret Thatcher
Margaret Thatcher
Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990...
to repeal the accord.
2010 Hong Kong by-elections
Territory-wide by-elections were held on 16 May 2010 in Hong Kong
Hong Kong
Hong Kong is one of two Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China , the other being Macau. A city-state situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South China Sea, it is renowned for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour...
. The by-elections were triggered by the resignation of five members of the Legislative Council, one each from the territory's five constituencies, three of them were representing the League of Social Democrats
League of Social Democrats
The League of Social Democrats or LSD is a radical pro-democratic political party in Hong Kong. Its declared purpose is to "take a clear-cut stand to defend the interests of the grassroots"...
, and the other two from the Civic Party
Civic Party
Civic Party is a liberal democratic political party in Hong Kong.The Civic Party is currently the third largest political party in the Legislative Council of Hong Kong, with five members securing seats in the 2008 Hong Kong Legislative Council elections...
. It was meant to be a de facto referendum on the territory's electoral reform.
30 seats in the 60-seat legislature are elected from "geographical constituencies". As in 2010 there were five multi-member constituencies. Elections are held using the largest remainder method
Largest remainder method
The largest remainder method is one way of allocating seats proportionally for representative assemblies with party list voting systems...
of the proportional representation
Proportional representation
Proportional representation is a concept in voting systems used to elect an assembly or council. PR means that the number of seats won by a party or group of candidates is proportionate to the number of votes received. For example, under a PR voting system if 30% of voters support a particular...
system. A by-election is necessary whenever a seat is vacant.
See also
- UK Parliamentary by-electionsUK Parliamentary by-electionsParliamentary by-elections in the United Kingdom occur following a vacancy arising in the House of Commons. They are often seen as a test of the rival political parties' fortunes between general elections.-Resignations:...
- List of democracy and elections-related topics
- Lists of by-elections and special elections by jurisdiction
- Australia: List of Australian federal by-elections
- Canada: List of federal by-elections in Canada
- Ireland: List of Irish by-elections
- New Zealand: New Zealand by-electionsNew Zealand by-electionsBy-elections in New Zealand occur to fill vacant seats in the New Zealand Parliament. The death, resignation, or expulsion of a sitting electorate MP can cause a by-election...
- Philippines: List of special elections to the Philippine Congress
- United Kingdom: List of United Kingdom by-elections
- Scotland: List of Scottish Parliamentary by-elections
- Wales: List of Welsh Assembly by-elections
- United Kingdom by-election recordsUnited Kingdom by-election recordsUK by-election records is an annotated list of notable records from UK Parliamentary by-elections. A by-election occurs when a Member of Parliament resigns, dies, or is disqualified or expelled, and an election is held to fill the vacant seat...
- United States: List of special elections to the United States House of Representatives
- United States: List of special elections to the United States Senate
External links
- Electing Local Authorities - article from the ACE Project