The
Bureau of Indian Affairs (
BIA) is an agency of the
federal government of the United StatesThe federal government of the United States is the national government of the constitutional republic of fifty states that is the United States of America. The federal government comprises three distinct branches of government: a legislative, an executive and a judiciary. These branches and...
within the
US Department of the InteriorThe United States Department of the Interior is the United States federal executive department of the U.S. government responsible for the management and conservation of most federal land and natural resources, and the administration of programs relating to Native Americans, Alaska Natives, Native...
. It is responsible for the administration and management of 55700000 acres (225,410.1 km²) of land held in trust by the United States for
Native Americans in the United StatesNative Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the present-day continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are composed of numerous, distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
,
Native American Tribes and
Alaska NativesAlaska Natives are the indigenous peoples of Alaska. They include: Aleut, Inuit, Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, Eyak, and a number of Northern Athabaskan cultures.-History:In 1912 the Alaska Native Brotherhood was founded...
.
The Bureau of Indian Affairs is one of two Bureaus under the jurisdiction of the Assistant Secretary — Indian Affairs: the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the
Bureau of Indian EducationThe Bureau of Indian Education is a division of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. It operates tribal schools for Native Americans in the United States. The BIE is headquartered in Washington, DC and runs 59 of the total 183 schools and dormitories it oversees in 23 states. -External links:*...
, which provides education services to approximately 48,000 Native Americans.
The BIA's responsibilities once included providing health care services to American Indians and Alaska Natives. In 1954, that function was legislatively transferred to the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, now known as the Department of Health and Human Services, where it has remained to this day as the
Indian Health ServiceIndian Health Service is an Operating Division within the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services . IHS is responsible for providing medical and public health services to members of federally recognized Tribes and Alaska Natives...
(IHS).
Organization
Located at 1849 C Street, N.W. in Washington, D.C., since May 22, 2009, the BIA is headed by an Assistant Secretary-Indian Affairs. The current appointee is
Larry EchoHawkLarry EchoHawk is an attorney and legal scholar. On May 20, 2009, EchoHawk joined the administration of U.S. President Barack Obama as the head of the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs. He served as Attorney General of Idaho from 1991 to 1995.-Biography:EchoHawk was raised in Farmington, New...
, an enrolled member of the Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma.
The BIA serves the 564 Federally recognized tribes through four offices:
- The Office of Indian Services - operates the BIA's general assistance, disaster relief, Indian child welfare, tribal government, Indian Self-Determination, and Indian Reservation Roads Program
The Indian Reservation Roads Program is part of the Bureau of Indian Affairs and is meant to meet the transportation needs of Native Americans in the United States, Native American Tribes and Alaska Natives...
.
- The Office of Justice Services - directly operates or funds law enforcement, tribal courts, and detention facilities on Federal Indian lands. OJS funded 208 law enforcement agencies, consisting of 43 BIA-operated Police agencies, and 165 tribally operated agencies under contract, or compact with the OJS. The office has seven areas of activity: Criminal Investigations and Police Services, Detention/Corrections, Inspection/Internal Affairs, Tribal Law Enforcement and Special Initiatives, the Indian Police Academy, Tribal Justice Support, and Program Management. The OJS also provides oversight and technical assistance to tribal law enforcement programs when and where requested. It operates four divisions: Corrections, Drug Enforcement, the Indian Police Academy, and Law Enforcement
- The Office of Trust Services - works with tribes and individual American Indians and Alaska Natives in the management of their trust lands, assets, and resources.
- The Office of Field Operations - oversees 12 regional offices; Alaska, Great Plains, Northwest, Southern Plains, Eastern, Navajo, Pacific, Southwest, Eastern Oklahoma, Midwest, Rocky Mountain, and Western; and 83 agencies, which carry out the mission of the Bureau at the tribal level.
History
First called the Office of Indian Affairs, the agency was created as a division in 1824 within the War Department. Similar agencies had existed in the U.S. government since 1775, when the
Second Continental CongressThe Second Continental Congress was a convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that started meeting on May 10, 1775, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, soon after warfare in the American Revolutionary War had begun. It succeeded the First Continental Congress, which met briefly during 1774,...
created a trio of Indian-related agencies.
Benjamin FranklinDr. Benjamin Franklin was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. A noted polymath, Franklin was a leading author, printer, political theorist, politician, postmaster, scientist, musician, inventor, satirist, civic activist, statesman, and diplomat...
and
Patrick HenryPatrick Henry was an orator and politician who led the movement for independence in Virginia in the 1770s. A Founding Father, he served as the first and sixth post-colonial Governor of Virginia from 1776 to 1779 and subsequently, from 1784 to 1786...
were appointed among the early commissioners to negotiate treaties with Native Americans to obtain their
neutralityA neutral power in a particular war is a sovereign state which declares itself to be neutral towards the belligerents. A non-belligerent state does not need to be neutral. The rights and duties of a neutral power are defined in Sections 5 and 13 of the Hague Convention of 1907...
during the
American Revolutionary WarThe American Revolutionary War , the American War of Independence, or simply the Revolutionary War, began as a war between the Kingdom of Great Britain and thirteen British colonies in North America, and ended in a global war between several European great powers.The war was the result of the...
.
In 1789, the
United States CongressThe United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C....
placed Native American relations within the newly formed
War DepartmentThe United States Department of War, also called the War Department , was the United States Cabinet department originally responsible for the operation and maintenance of the United States Army...
. By 1806, the Congress had created a Superintendent of Indian Trade, within the War Department, who was charged with maintaining the factory trading network of the
fur tradeThe fur trade is a worldwide industry dealing in the acquisition and sale of animal fur. Since the establishment of world market for in the early modern period furs of boreal, polar and cold temperate mammalian animals have been the most valued...
. The post was held by
Thomas L. McKenneyThomas Loraine McKenney was a United States official who served as Superintendent of Indian Trade from 1816–1822....
from 1816 until the abolition of the factory system in 1822.
The government licensed traders to have some control in Indian territories and gain a share of the lucrative trade. In 1832 Congress established the position of
Commissioner of Indian Affairs. In 1869,
Ely Samuel ParkerEly Samuel Parker , was a Seneca attorney, engineer, and tribal diplomat. He was commissioned a lieutenant colonel during the American Civil War, when he served as adjutant to General Ulysses S. Grant. He wrote the final draft of the Confederate surrender terms at Appomattox...
was the first Native American to be appointed as commissioner of Indian affairs.
The abolition of the
factoryFactory was the English term for the trading posts system originally established by Europeans in foreign territories, first within different states of medieval Europe, and later in their colonial possessions...
system left a vacuum within the U.S. government regarding Native American relations. The current Bureau of Indian Affairs was formed on March 11, 1824, by
Secretary of WarThe Secretary of War was a member of the United States President's Cabinet, beginning with George Washington's administration. A similar position, called either "Secretary at War" or "Secretary of War," was appointed to serve the Congress of the Confederation under the Articles of Confederation...
John C. CalhounJohn Caldwell Calhoun was a leading politician and political theorist from South Carolina during the first half of the 19th century. Calhoun eloquently spoke out on every issue of his day, but often changed positions. Calhoun began his political career as a nationalist, modernizer, and proponent...
, who created the agency as a division within his department, without authorization from the
United States CongressThe United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C....
. He appointed McKenney as the first head of the office, which went by several names. McKenney preferred to call it the "Indian Office", whereas the current name was preferred by Calhoun.
In 1849 Indian Affairs was transferred to the
Department of the InteriorThe United States Department of the Interior is the United States federal executive department of the U.S. government responsible for the management and conservation of most federal land and natural resources, and the administration of programs relating to Native Americans, Alaska Natives, Native...
. The bureau was renamed as Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) in 1947 (from the original Office of Indian Affairs). The Bureau of Indian Affairs has been involved in many controversial policies. One of the most controversial was the late nineteenth-early twentieth century decision to educate native children in separate
boarding schoolsAn Indian boarding school refers to one of many schools that were established in the United States during the late 19th and early 20th centuries to educate Native American children and youths according to Euro-American standards...
, with an emphasis on assimilation that prohibited them from using their indigenous languages, practices, and cultures. It emphasized being educated to European-American culture. Some were beaten for praying to their own creator god.
20th century
With the rise of American Indian
activismActivism consists of intentional efforts to bring about social, political, economic, or environmental change. Activism can take a wide range of forms from writing letters to newspapers or politicians, political campaigning, economic activism such as boycotts or preferentially patronizing...
in the 1960s and 1970s, and increasing demands for enforcement of treaty rights and sovereignty, the 1970s were a particularly turbulent period of BIA history. The rise of activist groups such as the
American Indian MovementThe American Indian Movement is a Native American activist organization in the United States, founded in 1968 in Minneapolis, Minnesota by urban Native Americans. The national AIM agenda focuses on spirituality, leadership, and sovereignty...
worried the U.S. Government; the FBI responded both overtly and covertly (by creating
COINTELPROCOINTELPRO was a series of covert, and often illegal, projects conducted by the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation aimed at surveilling, infiltrating, discrediting, and disrupting domestic political organizations.COINTELPRO tactics included discrediting targets through psychological...
and other programs) to suppress possible uprisings among native peoples.
As a branch of the U.S. government with personnel on Indian reservations, BIA police were involved in political actions such as: the occupation of BIA headquarters in Washington, D.C. in 1972; the
Wounded Knee IncidentThe Wounded Knee incident began February 27, 1973 when about 200 Oglala Lakota and followers of the American Indian Movement seized and occupied the town of Wounded Knee, South Dakota on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation...
of 1973, where activists at the
Pine Ridge Indian ReservationThe Pine Ridge Indian Reservation is an Oglala Sioux Native American reservation located in the U.S. state of South Dakota. Originally included within the territory of the Great Sioux Reservation, Pine Ridge was established in 1889 in the southwest corner of South Dakota on the Nebraska border...
occupied land for more than two months; and the
Pine RidgePine Ridge may refer to:*Pine Ridge , of northwestern Nebraska and southwestern South Dakota*Pine Ridge Indian Reservation of southwestern South Dakota*Pine Ridge Campaign of the United States Army*Pine Ridge, Alabama...
shootout (for which
Leonard PeltierLeonard Peltier is a Native American activist and member of the American Indian Movement . In 1977 he was convicted and sentenced to two consecutive terms of life imprisonment for first degree murder in the shooting of two Federal Bureau of Investigation agents during a 1975 conflict on the Pine...
was convicted of killing two FBI agents).
The BIA was implicated in supporting controversial tribal presidents, notably
Dick WilsonRichard A. "Dick" Wilson was elected chairman of the Oglala Lakota Sioux of the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota, where he served from 1972–1976, following re-election in 1974...
, who was charged with being authoritarian; using tribal funds for a private
paramilitaryA paramilitary is a force whose function and organization are similar to those of a professional military, but which is not considered part of a state's formal armed forces....
force, the
Guardians of the Oglala NationThe Guardians of the Oglala Nation were a private paramilitary group active on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation during the early 1970s.-Formation:...
(or "GOON squad"), which he employed against opponents; intimidation of voters in the 1974 election; misappropriation of funds, and other misdeeds. Many native peoples continue to oppose policies of the BIA, particularly problems in enforcing treaties, and handling records and income for trust lands.
On November 3, a group of around 500
American IndiansNative Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the present-day continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are composed of numerous, distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
with the
American Indian MovementThe American Indian Movement is a Native American activist organization in the United States, founded in 1968 in Minneapolis, Minnesota by urban Native Americans. The national AIM agenda focuses on spirituality, leadership, and sovereignty...
(AIM) took over the (BIA) building in
Washington, D.C.Washington, D.C., formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, "the District", or simply D.C., is the capital of the United States. On July 16, 1790, the United States Congress approved the creation of a permanent national capital as permitted by the U.S. Constitution....
, the culmination of their
Trail of Broken TreatiesThe Trail of Broken Treaties was a cross-country protest in the United States by American Indian and First Nations organizations that took place in the autumn of 1972...
walk. They intended to bring attention to American Indian issues, including their demands for renewed negotiation of treaties, enforcement of treaty rights and improvement in living standards. They occupied the Department of Interior headquarters from November 3 to November 9, 1972.
Feeling the government was ignoring them, the protesters vandalized the building. After a week, the protesters left, having caused $700,000 in damages. Many records were lost, destroyed or stolen, including irreplaceable treaties, deeds, and water rights records, which some Indian officials said could set the tribes back 50 to 100 years.
http://www.maquah.net/Historical/1972/images/72-11-1_justice_charge_indians.jpg
http://www.maquah.net/Historical/1972/images/72-11-10_amnesty_denied.jpg
Employee Overtime
The Bureau of Indian Affairs has been sued four times in
class actionIn law, a class action, a class suit, or a representative action is a form of lawsuit in which a large group of people collectively bring a claim to court and/or in which a class of defendants is being sued...
overtime lawsuits brought by the Federation of Indian Service Employees, a
unionA trade union, trades union or labor union is an organization of workers that have banded together to achieve common goals such as better working conditions. The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts with...
which represents the federal civilian employees of BIA (Bureau of Indian Affairs), BIE (Bureau of Indian Education), AS-IA (Assistant Secretary of Indian Affairs) and OST (Office of the Special Trustee for Indian Affairs). The Union is represented by the Law Offices of Snider & Associates, LLC, which concentrates in FLSA overtime class actions against the Federal Government and other large employers. The Grievances allege widespread violations of the FLSA and claims tens of millions of dollars in damages.
Trust Assets
Cobell vs. Salazar, a major class action case related to trust lands, was settled in December 2009. The suit was filed against the US Department of Interior, of which BIA is part. A major responsibility has been the management of the Indian trust accounts. This was a class-action lawsuit regarding the federal government's management and accounting of more than 300,000 individual American Indian and Alaska Native trust accounts. A settlement fund totaling $1.4 billion is to be distributed to class members. This is to compensate for claims that prior U.S. officials had mismanaged the administration of Indian trust assets. In addition, the settlement establishes a $2 billion fund enabling federally recognized tribes to voluntarily buy-back and consolidate fractionated land interests.
Current mission evolution
The Bureau is currently trying to evolve from a supervisory to an advisory role; however, this has been a difficult task as the BIA is remembered by many Native Americans as playing a police role in which the U.S. government historically dictated to tribes and their members what they could and could not do in accordance with treaties signed by both.
Commissioners and Assistant Secretaries
Commissioners of Indian Affairs
Heads of the Bureau of Indian Affairs
- 11.03.1824–30.09.1830 Thomas L. McKenney
Thomas Loraine McKenney was a United States official who served as Superintendent of Indian Trade from 1816–1822....
- 30.09.1830–08.1831 Samuel S. Hamilton
Commissioners of Indian Affairs
- 10.07.1832–4.07.1836 Elbert Herring
- 4.07.1836–22.10.1838 Carey A. Harris
- 22.10.1838–28.10.1845 Thomas Hartley Crawford
Thomas Hartley Crawford was a Jacksonian member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania.Thomas H. Crawford was born in Chambersburg, Pennsylvania. He graduated from Princeton College in 1804...
- 28.10.1845–30.06.1849 William Medill
William Medill was a Democratic politician from Ohio. He served as the 22nd Governor of Ohio.Born in New Castle County, Delaware, Medill was elected to the Ohio House of Representatives, where he served from 1835–1838, serving as Speaker of the House from 1836-1837...
- 30.06.1849–1.07.1850 Orlando Brown
- 1.07.1850–24.03.1853 Luke Lea
Luke Lea may refer to:* Luke Lea , U.S. Representative from Tennessee, 1833–1837* Luke Lea , U.S. Senator from Tennessee, 1911–1917; founder of The Tennessean newspaper* Luke Lea, Commissioner of Indian Affairs 1850-1853...
- 24.03.1853–17.04.1857 George W. (Washington) Manypenny
- 17.04.1857–14.06.1858 James W. Denver
James William Denver was an American politician, soldier, lawyer, and esteemed actor. He served in the California state government, as an officer in the United States Army in two wars, and as a Democratic member of the United States House of Representatives from California, as well as playing lead...
- 14.06.1858–8.11.1858 Charles E. Mix
- 8.11.1858–4.05.1859 James W. Denver
James William Denver was an American politician, soldier, lawyer, and esteemed actor. He served in the California state government, as an officer in the United States Army in two wars, and as a Democratic member of the United States House of Representatives from California, as well as playing lead...
- 4.05.1859–13.05.1861 Alfred B. Greenwood
Alfred Burton Greenwood was an attorney and a politician; he was elected to the United States and Confederate congresses as a Democrat. In 1859 he was appointed under President James Buchanan as Commissioner of Indian Affairs, and resigned when Arkansas seceded from the Union in 1861.-Career:He...
- 13.05.1861–10.07.1865 William P. Dole
- 10.07.1865–1.11.1866 Dennis N. Cooley
- 1.11.1866–29.03.1867 Lewis V. Bogley
- 29.03.1867–21.04.1869 Nathaniel G. Taylor
- 21.04.1869–1871 Ely S. Parker
Ely Samuel Parker , was a Seneca attorney, engineer, and tribal diplomat. He was commissioned a lieutenant colonel during the American Civil War, when he served as adjutant to General Ulysses S. Grant. He wrote the final draft of the Confederate surrender terms at Appomattox...
- 1871–21.11.1871 H.R. Clum (acting)
- 21.11.1871–1872 Francis A. Walker
Francis Amasa Walker was an American economist, statistician, journalist, educator, academic administrator, and military officer in the Union Army. Walker was born into a prominent Boston family, the son of the economist and politician Amasa Walker, and he graduated from Amherst College at the age...
- 1872–20.03.1873 H.R. Clum (acting)
- 20.03.1873–11.12.1875 Edward Parmelee Smith
Edward Parmelee Smith was a Congregational minister in Massachusetts before becoming Field Secretary for the United States Christian Commission during the American Civil War. In official positions with the American Missionary Association , he was a co-founder of Fisk University and other...
- 11.12.1875–27.09.1877 John Q. Smith
John Quincy Smith was a farmer, politician and legislator from Ohio.-Life & career:John Q. Smith was born to Thomas Edward Smith and Mary Kennedy Whitehill , natives of Virginia, on their Warren County, Ohio farm near Waynesville...
- 27.09.1877–1880 Ezra A. Hayt
- 1879-1887 John Q. Tufts
John Quincy Adams Tufts was an American Republican politician from Iowa and California.The son of Servetus Tufts and Emily , John Q. was born near Aurora, Indiana or Wilton, Maine , Tufts moved to Muscatine County, Iowa, with his parents in 1852...
- 1880–1880 E.M. Marble
- 1880–1881 R.E. Trowbridge
- 1881–21.03.1885 Hiram Price
Hiram Price was a nineteenth-century banker, merchant, bookkeeper, bank president, railroad president, and five-term Republican congressman from Iowa's 2nd congressional district....
- 21.03.1885–13.06.1888 John D.C. Atkins
- 13.06.1888–07.1889 John H. Oberly
- 07.1889–1893 Thomas Jefferson Morgan
- 1893–1897 Daniel M. Browning
- 1897–1905 William A. Jones
William Atkinson Jones was a member of the U.S. House of Representatives from 1891 to 1918.Jones was born in Warsaw, Virginia, and graduated from the law department of the University of Virginia in 1870...
- 1905–1909 Francis E. Leupp
- 1909–1913 Robert G. Valentine
- 1913–1921 Cato Sells
Cato Sells was the Commissioner at the Bureau of Indian Affairs from 1913 from 1921.-Biography:He was born in Vinton, Iowa, October 6, 1859. Losing his father at an early age he was obliged to provide for the family, attending public school winters. He entered Cornell College at sixteen,...
(1859–1948)
- 1921–1929 Charles H. Burke
Charles Henry Burke was a Republican Congressman from South Dakota and Commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs in the 1920s.-Biography:He was born near Batavia, New York, in 1861, and attended the public school there...
- 1929–1933 Charles J. Rhoads
- 1933–1945 John Collier
John Collier was an American social reformer and Native American advocate. He served as Commissioner for the Bureau of Indian Affairs in the President Franklin D. Roosevelt administration, from 1933-1945...
- 1945–1948 William A. Brophy
- 1948–1949 William R. Zimmerman (acting)
- 1949–1950 John R. Nichols
- 1950–1953 Dillon S. Myer
- 1953–1961 Glenn L. Emmons
- 1961–1966 Philleo Nash
Philleo Nash was a government official, educator, anthropolologist, and Lieutenant Governor of Wisconsin from 1959-1961 as a Democrat.-Early life and family:...
- 1966–1969 Robert L. Bennett
- 1969–1972 Louis R. Bruce
- 1973–1976 Morris Thompson
Morris Thompson was an Alaska Native leader, American businessman and political appointee working on matters related to Alaska Natives.-Early life and career:...
- 1976–1977 Dr. Benjamin Reifel
Assistant Secretaries of the Interior for Indian Affairs
- 1977–1978 Forrest Gerard
- 1979-1981 William E. Hallett
- 1981–1984 Kenneth L. Smith
- 1985–1989 Ross Swimmer
Ross O. Swimmer is the Special Trustee for American Indians at the U.S. Department of the Interior. Swimmer attended the University of Oklahoma, where he received both his Bachelor of Arts and Juris Doctor degrees...
- 1989–1993 Eddie Frank Brown
- 1993–1997 Ada E. Deer
- 1997–2001 Kevin Gover
- 2001–2001 James H. McDivitt (acting)
- 2001–2003 Neal A. McCaleb
- 2003–2004 Aurene M. Martin (acting)
- 2004–2005 Dave Anderson
David W. "Famous Dave" Anderson, best known as the founder of the Famous Dave's restaurant chain, was the former Assistant Secretary - Indian Affairs in the Department of the Interior, with jurisdiction over the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Office of Indian Education Programs . Anderson is a...
- 2005–2007 Jim Cason (acting)
- 2007–2008 Carl J. Artman
Carl J. Artman served as the United States Assistant Secretary of the Interior for Indian Affairs with jurisdiction over the Office of Indian Affairs, Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Bureau of Indian Education from 2007 to 2008, and he served as the Associate Solicitor for Indian Affairs at the...
- 2008–2009 George Skibine
George Skibine , was a ballet dancer with the Ballets Russes from age 5, son of Boris Skibine, also of the Ballets Russes, choreographer and balletmaster of the Harkness and Dallas Ballets.- Obituaries :* , January 16th, 1981...
(acting)
- 2009–present Larry EchoHawk
Larry EchoHawk is an attorney and legal scholar. On May 20, 2009, EchoHawk joined the administration of U.S. President Barack Obama as the head of the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs. He served as Attorney General of Idaho from 1991 to 1995.-Biography:EchoHawk was raised in Farmington, New...
See also
- Bureau of Indian Affairs Police
The Bureau of Indian Affairs Police, usually known as the BIA Police is the law enforcement arm of the Bureau of Indian Affairs which polices Indian tribes and reservations that don't have their own police force, and oversee other tribal police organizations...
- Indian Department
The Indian Department was established in 1755 to oversee relations between the government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and those First Nations in British North America. At that time of its establishment it was a wing of the British Military.The department was initially led by...
- Indian agent
In United States history, an Indian agent was an individual authorized to interact with Native American tribes on behalf of the U.S. government.-Indian agents:*Leander Clark was agent for the Sac and Fox in Iowa beginning in 1866....
- Indian reservations
- National Indian Gaming Commission
The National Indian Gaming Commission is an independent federal regulatory agency within the Department of the Interior. Congress established this agency through the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act in 1988. The agency has the duty to "promulgate such regulations and guidelines as it deems...
- Indian Claims Commission
The Indian Claims Commission was a judicial panel for relations between the United States Federal Government and Native American tribes. It was established in 1946 by the United States Congress to hear claims of Indian tribes against the United States...
- Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada
- American Indian Movement
The American Indian Movement is a Native American activist organization in the United States, founded in 1968 in Minneapolis, Minnesota by urban Native Americans. The national AIM agenda focuses on spirituality, leadership, and sovereignty...
AIM
- Outline of United States federal indian law and policy
Law and U.S. public policy related to Native Americans has evolved continuously since the founding of the United States. This outline lists notable people, organizations, events, legislation, treaties, court cases and literature related to United States Federal Indian Law and Policy.-U.S. Supreme...
Additional reading
- Belko, William S. "'John C. Calhoun and the Creation of the Bureau of Indian Affairs: An Essay on Political Rivalry, Ideology, and Policymaking in the Early Republic," South Carolina Historical Magazine 2004 105(3): 170–197. ISSN 0038-3082
- Cahill, Cathleen D. Federal Fathers and Mothers: A Social History of the United States Indian Service, 1869-1933 (U of North Carolina Press, 2011) 368 pp. online review
- Deloria, Jr., Vine, and David E. Wilkins, Tribes, Treaties, & Constitutional Tribulations (Austin, 1999)
- Jackson, Helen H. A Century of Dishonor: A Sketch of the U. S. Government's Dealings with Some of the Indian Tribes (1881) online edition
- Leupp, F. E. The Indian and His Problem (1910) online edition
- Meriam, Lewis, et al., The Problem of Indian Administration, Studies in Administration, 17 (Baltimore, 1928)
- Pevar, Stephen L. The Rights of Indians and Tribes (Carbondale, 2002)
- Prucha, Francis P. Atlas of American Indian Affairs (Lincoln, 1990)
- Prucha, Francis P. The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians (Abridged Edition 1986) excerpt and text search
- Schmeckebier, L. F. Office of Indian Affairs: History, Activities,and Organization, Service Monograh 48 (Baltimore 1927)
- Sutton, I. "Indian Country and the Law: Land Tenure, Tribal Sovereignty, and the States," ch. 36 in Law in the Western United States, ed. G. M. Bakken (Norman, 2000)
Primary sources
External links