'Buddhist Logic', the categorical nomenclature modern Western discourse has extended to Buddhadharma traditions of 'Hetuvidya' (Sanskrit) and 'Pramanavada' (Sanskrit), which arose circa 500
CE, is a particular development, application and lineage of continuity of '
Indian LogicThe development of Indian logic can be said to date back to the anviksiki of Medhatithi Gautama ; the Sanskrit grammar rules of Pāṇini ; the Vaisheshika school's analysis of atomism ; the analysis of inference by Gotama , founder of the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy; and the tetralemma of...
', from which it seceded. Indian logic, and Buddhist Logic --in main heralded by
DignāgaDignāga was an Indian scholar and one of the Buddhist founders of Indian logic....
(c 480-540 CE)-- are both primarily studies of 'inference'-patterns, where ‘inference’ is a gloss of anumāna (Sanskrit).
Sadhukhan,
et al. (1994: p.7) frames the centrality of 'syllogism' to Buddhist Logic and foregrounds its indivisibility as an investigative, authenticating and proofing tool instituted to establish the valid cognitive insights of the Buddhadharma:
Buddhist logic obviously contains the forms and nature of syllogism, the essence of judgement, etc. for which it deserves the name of logic. But that logic is not only logic it also establishes the doctrines of the Buddhists. Thus the philosophical tenets were the fulcrum and the logic developed as tools to establish those.
Following the work of
TucciGiuseppe Tucci , was an Italian scholar of oriental cultures, specialising in Tibet and history of Buddhism. He was fluent in several European languages, Sanskrit, Bengali, Pali, Prakrit, Chinese and Tibetan and he taught at the University of Rome La Sapienza until his death...
(1929) and the critique of Anacker (2005, rev.ed.) upon the collation of
FrauwallnerErich Frauwallner was an Austrian professor, a pioneer in the field of Buddhist Studies.-Career and life:...
(1957), it is now understood that
VasubandhuVasubandhu was, according to Mahayana Buddhist tradition, an Indian Buddhist scholar-monk, and along with his half-brother Asanga, one of the main founders of the Indian Yogācāra school. However, some scholars consider Vasubandhu to be two distinct people. Vasubandhu is one of the most...
's
Vāda-vidhi ("A Method for Argumentation") refined the five argument logic of the
Nyāya-sūtra to a three argument form and not his pupil Dignāga. In addition to pruning the two redundant arguments from the syllogism, Vasubandhu tendered a further qualification: he posited that a sound relationship, a 'logical pervasion' (vyāpti) needs to be defined between the first and second arguments, a relationship between the 'Demonstrandum' (pratijna) and the 'Justification' (hetu) that is assumed in the
Nyāya-sūtra and other literature of the
Nyāya' is the name given to one of the six orthodox or astika schools of Hindu philosophy—specifically the school of logic...
school. This logical pervasion is required to fashion sound arguments. Vasubandhu's
Vāda-vidhi was reconstructed by Frauwallner from embedded quotations harvested from the works of Dignāga, amongst others. Dignāga, oft-cited as the wellspring of the logical triune in the Buddhadharma, is now invalidated.
Qualifications of what is signified by the lexical signifier 'Logic' in the Dharmic context
Logic [Dharmic traditions] ≠ Logic[Classical logic]
‘Indian Logic’ should not be understood as logic in the sense of ‘
AristotelianAristotelian matters may refer to:* Aristotle * Aristotelianism, the philosophical tradition begun by Aristotle...
syllogistic’ (
Greek or Classical LogicClassical logic identifies a class of formal logics that have been most intensively studied and most widely used. They are characterised by a number of properties:#Law of the excluded middle and Double negative elimination;#Law of noncontradiction;...
) or ‘modern predicate calculus’ (
modern Western LogicLogic, from the Greek λογική is the art and science of reasoning. More specifically, it is defined by the Penguin Encyclopedia to be "The formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning". As a discipline, logic dates back to Aristotle, who established its...
), but as
anumāna-theory, a system in its own right. ‘Indian Logic’ was influenced by the study of grammar, whereas Greek or Classical Logic which principally informed modern Western Logic was influenced by the study of mathematics.
'Buddhist logic' (English)
Vidyabhusana (1921), Randle (1930) and
StcherbatskyFyodor Ippolitovich Shcherbatskoy or Stcherbatsky was a Russian Indologist who, in large part, was responsible for laying the foundations in the Western world for the scholarly study of Buddhist philosophy....
(1930) employed terms such as “Indian Logic” and “
Buddhist Logic'Buddhist Logic', the categorical nomenclature modern Western discourse has extended to Buddhadharma traditions of 'Hetuvidya' and 'Pramanavada' , which arose circa 500CE, is a particular development, application and lineage of continuity of 'Indian Logic', from which it seceded...
” which established this terminology, though a key difference between Western Logic and Indian Logic is that certain epistemological issues are included within Indian Logic; whereas, in modern Western Logic they are deliberately excluded. Indian Logic includes general questions regarding the ‘nature of the derivation of knowledge’, epistemology, from information supplied by evidence, evidence which in turn may be another item of knowledge.
'Anumana' (Sanskrit)
Etymology: ‘anu’ subsequent + manas ‘perception, mind’ ) is identified as a ‘source of knowledge’, a
pramāṇaPramana is an epistemological term in Hindu and Buddhist dialectic, debate and discourse.Hetuvidya and Pramāṇavāda collectively hold the semantic field of what may be understood in the English language as Indian and Buddhist Epistemology and Logic.-In Hinduism:Different systems of Hindu...
. Though not the founders of 'Indian logic', the
Nyaya' is the name given to one of the six orthodox or astika schools of Hindu philosophy—specifically the school of logic...
school first codified and established a 'system of logic'. The Nyāya recognized four 'sources of knowledge' (
pramanaPramana is an epistemological term in Hindu and Buddhist dialectic, debate and discourse.Hetuvidya and Pramāṇavāda collectively hold the semantic field of what may be understood in the English language as Indian and Buddhist Epistemology and Logic.-In Hinduism:Different systems of Hindu...
): perception, inference, comparison and testimony.
Antecedents and secession
'
Nyāya' is the name given to one of the six orthodox or astika schools of Hindu philosophy—specifically the school of logic...
', (Sanskrit: "recursion", with the semantic amplification of '
syllogismA syllogism or logical appeal is a kind of logical argument in which one proposition is inferred from two others of a certain form....
, inference') is the name given to one of the six 'orthodox' (astika) schools of Sanatana Dharma, which may be understood as the "the school of logic". They Nyaya is founded in the
Nyaya SutrasThe Nyāya Sūtras are an ancient Indian text on of philosophy composed by ' The sutras contain five chapters, each with two sections...
, attributed to Gotama (2nd century CE). Buddhist logic inherited much of the architecture of Nyaya's methodology, but where the Nyaya recognised a set of four pramanas: perception, inference, comparison and testimony, the logic of Buddhadharma only recognized two, perception and inference.
Syllogism
A
syllogismA syllogism or logical appeal is a kind of logical argument in which one proposition is inferred from two others of a certain form....
is a form of inference. Ames (1993: p.210), holds that
BhāvavivekaBhavaviveka or Bhavya , was the founder of the Svatantrika tradition of the Mādhyamaka school of Buddhism...
(c.500-c.578) appears to be the first Buddhist logician to employ the 'formal syllogism' (Wylie: sbyor ba'i tshig; Sanskrit: prayoga-vākya) of
Indian LogicThe development of Indian logic can be said to date back to the anviksiki of Medhatithi Gautama ; the Sanskrit grammar rules of Pāṇini ; the Vaisheshika school's analysis of atomism ; the analysis of inference by Gotama , founder of the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy; and the tetralemma of...
in expounding the
MādhyamakaMadhyamaka is a Buddhist Mahāyāna tradition systematized by Nāgārjuna. Nāgārjuna may have arrived at his positions from a desire to achieve a consistent exegesis of the Buddha's doctrine as recorded in the Nikayas...
which he employed to considerable effect in his commentary to
NagarjunaAcharya Nāgārjuna was an Indian philosopher and the founder of the Madhyamaka school of Mahāyāna Buddhism....
's
MūlamadhyamakakārikāMūlamadhyamakakārikā , or Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way, is a key text by Nagarjuna, one of the most important Buddhist philosophers...
, entitled the
Prajñāpradīpa. Though due to the work of Anacker (2005, rev.ed.) and those upon whom his work is founded, we know that the first Buddhist to refine the syllogism to its three line form is Vasubhandu.
Dharmic logic in Western discourse & literature review
Vidyabhusana (1921), Randle (1930) and
StcherbatskyFyodor Ippolitovich Shcherbatskoy or Stcherbatsky was a Russian Indologist who, in large part, was responsible for laying the foundations in the Western world for the scholarly study of Buddhist philosophy....
(1930)
Lineage
Dr S.C. Vidyabhusana, Rahula Sankrityayana, Dr M. K. Ganguli, A. Vostrikov, Prof.
Giuseppe TucciGiuseppe Tucci , was an Italian scholar of oriental cultures, specialising in Tibet and history of Buddhism. He was fluent in several European languages, Sanskrit, Bengali, Pali, Prakrit, Chinese and Tibetan and he taught at the University of Rome La Sapienza until his death...
, B. Baradiin, V. Vassiliev (1818—1900), E. E. Obermiller (1901-1935), Prof. Gerhard Oberhammer, Prof. E. Franwallner, F. Th. Stcherbatsky, E. Steikellner.
Robinson (1957: p.295) holds that Nakamura (1954), (building upon the methodology of Schayer [1933]):
...presents the case for the superiority of modern scientific, notational logic as an instrument for investigating Indian logic. Notational statement avoids the pitfalls and awkwardness of linguistic statement and rhetorical logic. It does not necessitate conversion of Indian forms into the standard forms of traditional Western logic, but clarifies the traditional Indian structure without requiring reformulation. To Nakamura's points I may add that modern logic asks a greater range of questions and hence sharpens the observation of the investigator.
Pramana sets as determining traditions of Dharma
Decisive in distinguishing Buddhadharma from what is generally understood as
Sanatana DharmaThe Sanskrit term Sanātana Dharm or Dharmam Sanātanam , lit. "the way of life", is an epithet used natively in Indian Religions, notably Hinduism and early Buddhism to collectively refer to their religious practices and beliefs respectively...
is the issue of epistemological justification. All schools of
Indian logicThe development of Indian logic can be said to date back to the anviksiki of Medhatithi Gautama ; the Sanskrit grammar rules of Pāṇini ; the Vaisheshika school's analysis of atomism ; the analysis of inference by Gotama , founder of the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy; and the tetralemma of...
recognize various sets of 'valid justifications for knowledge', or
pramanaPramana is an epistemological term in Hindu and Buddhist dialectic, debate and discourse.Hetuvidya and Pramāṇavāda collectively hold the semantic field of what may be understood in the English language as Indian and Buddhist Epistemology and Logic.-In Hinduism:Different systems of Hindu...
– the Buddhadharma recognizes a
pramanaPramana is an epistemological term in Hindu and Buddhist dialectic, debate and discourse.Hetuvidya and Pramāṇavāda collectively hold the semantic field of what may be understood in the English language as Indian and Buddhist Epistemology and Logic.-In Hinduism:Different systems of Hindu...
set that is smaller than the other Dharmic Traditions. Most pramanavada of Dharmic Traditions accept '
perceptionIn philosophy, psychology, and the cognitive sciences, perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory information. It is a task far more complex than was imagined in the 1950s and 1960s, when it was predicted that building perceiving machines would take about a decade,...
' (Sanskrit: pratyakṣa) and 'inference' (Sanskrit: anumāna), for example, but for some schools of Sanatana Dharma and Buddhadharma the 'received textual tradition' (Sanskrit: āgamāḥ) is an epistemological category equal to perception and inference (although this is not necessarily true for some other schools). The Buddhadharma accepts 'received textual tradition' or āgamāḥ, including
BuddhavacanaBuddhavacana, from Pali means "the Word of the Buddha". It refers to the original sayings of the Buddha but is sometimes used to simply refer to any sacred writing of the various Buddhist traditions...
, only if it accords with pratyakṣa and anumāna. Historically, Shakyamuni Buddha was qualifying the unquestionable authority of the Vedas on grounds of
ahimsaAhimsa is a Sanskrit term meaning to do no harm . It is an important tenet of the religions that originated in ancient India . Ahimsa is a rule of conduct that bars the killing or injuring of living beings...
as according to the Vedic Tradition of Sanatana Dharma, the
VedasThe Vedas are a large body of texts originating in Ancient India. The texts are composed in Vedic Sanskrit and form the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature, and the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism....
are
{{Cleanup|date=October 2008}}
'Buddhist Logic', the categorical nomenclature modern Western discourse has extended to Buddhadharma traditions of 'Hetuvidya' (Sanskrit) and 'Pramanavada' (Sanskrit), which arose circa 500CE, is a particular development, application and lineage of continuity of 'Indian LogicThe development of Indian logic can be said to date back to the anviksiki of Medhatithi Gautama ; the Sanskrit grammar rules of Pāṇini ; the Vaisheshika school's analysis of atomism ; the analysis of inference by Gotama , founder of the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy; and the tetralemma of...
', from which it seceded. Indian logic, and Buddhist Logic --in main heralded by DignāgaDignāga was an Indian scholar and one of the Buddhist founders of Indian logic....
(c 480-540 CE)-- are both primarily studies of 'inference'-patterns, where ‘inference’ is a gloss of anumāna (Sanskrit).
Sadhukhan, et al. (1994: p.7) frames the centrality of 'syllogism' to Buddhist Logic and foregrounds its indivisibility as an investigative, authenticating and proofing tool instituted to establish the valid cognitive insights of the Buddhadharma:
Buddhist logic obviously contains the forms and nature of syllogism, the essence of judgement, etc. for which it deserves the name of logic. But that logic is not only logic it also establishes the doctrines of the Buddhists. Thus the philosophical tenets were the fulcrum and the logic developed as tools to establish those.
Following the work of TucciGiuseppe Tucci , was an Italian scholar of oriental cultures, specialising in Tibet and history of Buddhism. He was fluent in several European languages, Sanskrit, Bengali, Pali, Prakrit, Chinese and Tibetan and he taught at the University of Rome La Sapienza until his death...
(1929) and the critique of Anacker (2005, rev.ed.) upon the collation of FrauwallnerErich Frauwallner was an Austrian professor, a pioneer in the field of Buddhist Studies.-Career and life:...
(1957), it is now understood that VasubandhuVasubandhu was, according to Mahayana Buddhist tradition, an Indian Buddhist scholar-monk, and along with his half-brother Asanga, one of the main founders of the Indian Yogācāra school. However, some scholars consider Vasubandhu to be two distinct people. Vasubandhu is one of the most...
's Vāda-vidhi ("A Method for Argumentation") refined the five argument logic of the Nyāya-sūtra to a three argument form and not his pupil Dignāga. In addition to pruning the two redundant arguments from the syllogism, Vasubandhu tendered a further qualification: he posited that a sound relationship, a 'logical pervasion' (vyāpti) needs to be defined between the first and second arguments, a relationship between the 'Demonstrandum' (pratijna) and the 'Justification' (hetu) that is assumed in the Nyāya-sūtra and other literature of the Nyāya' is the name given to one of the six orthodox or astika schools of Hindu philosophy—specifically the school of logic...
school. This logical pervasion is required to fashion sound arguments. Vasubandhu's Vāda-vidhi was reconstructed by Frauwallner from embedded quotations harvested from the works of Dignāga, amongst others. Dignāga, oft-cited as the wellspring of the logical triune in the Buddhadharma, is now invalidated.
Qualifications of what is signified by the lexical signifier 'Logic' in the Dharmic context
Logic [Dharmic traditions] ≠ Logic[Classical logic]
‘Indian Logic’ should not be understood as logic in the sense of ‘AristotelianAristotelian matters may refer to:* Aristotle * Aristotelianism, the philosophical tradition begun by Aristotle...
syllogistic’ (Greek or Classical LogicClassical logic identifies a class of formal logics that have been most intensively studied and most widely used. They are characterised by a number of properties:#Law of the excluded middle and Double negative elimination;#Law of noncontradiction;...
) or ‘modern predicate calculus’ (modern Western LogicLogic, from the Greek λογική is the art and science of reasoning. More specifically, it is defined by the Penguin Encyclopedia to be "The formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning". As a discipline, logic dates back to Aristotle, who established its...
), but as anumāna-theory, a system in its own right. ‘Indian Logic’ was influenced by the study of grammar, whereas Greek or Classical Logic which principally informed modern Western Logic was influenced by the study of mathematics.
'Buddhist logic' (English)
Vidyabhusana (1921), Randle (1930) and StcherbatskyFyodor Ippolitovich Shcherbatskoy or Stcherbatsky was a Russian Indologist who, in large part, was responsible for laying the foundations in the Western world for the scholarly study of Buddhist philosophy....
(1930) employed terms such as “Indian Logic” and “Buddhist Logic'Buddhist Logic', the categorical nomenclature modern Western discourse has extended to Buddhadharma traditions of 'Hetuvidya' and 'Pramanavada' , which arose circa 500CE, is a particular development, application and lineage of continuity of 'Indian Logic', from which it seceded...
” which established this terminology, though a key difference between Western Logic and Indian Logic is that certain epistemological issues are included within Indian Logic; whereas, in modern Western Logic they are deliberately excluded. Indian Logic includes general questions regarding the ‘nature of the derivation of knowledge’, epistemology, from information supplied by evidence, evidence which in turn may be another item of knowledge.
'Anumana' (Sanskrit)
Etymology: ‘anu’ subsequent + manas ‘perception, mind’ ) is identified as a ‘source of knowledge’, a pramāṇaPramana is an epistemological term in Hindu and Buddhist dialectic, debate and discourse.Hetuvidya and Pramāṇavāda collectively hold the semantic field of what may be understood in the English language as Indian and Buddhist Epistemology and Logic.-In Hinduism:Different systems of Hindu...
. Though not the founders of 'Indian logic', the Nyaya' is the name given to one of the six orthodox or astika schools of Hindu philosophy—specifically the school of logic...
school first codified and established a 'system of logic'. The Nyāya recognized four 'sources of knowledge' (pramanaPramana is an epistemological term in Hindu and Buddhist dialectic, debate and discourse.Hetuvidya and Pramāṇavāda collectively hold the semantic field of what may be understood in the English language as Indian and Buddhist Epistemology and Logic.-In Hinduism:Different systems of Hindu...
): perception, inference, comparison and testimony.
Antecedents and secession
'Nyāya' is the name given to one of the six orthodox or astika schools of Hindu philosophy—specifically the school of logic...
', (Sanskrit: "recursion", with the semantic amplification of 'syllogismA syllogism or logical appeal is a kind of logical argument in which one proposition is inferred from two others of a certain form....
, inference') is the name given to one of the six 'orthodox' (astika) schools of Sanatana Dharma, which may be understood as the "the school of logic". They Nyaya is founded in the Nyaya SutrasThe Nyāya Sūtras are an ancient Indian text on of philosophy composed by ' The sutras contain five chapters, each with two sections...
, attributed to Gotama (2nd century CE). Buddhist logic inherited much of the architecture of Nyaya's methodology, but where the Nyaya recognised a set of four pramanas: perception, inference, comparison and testimony, the logic of Buddhadharma only recognized two, perception and inference.
Syllogism
A syllogismA syllogism or logical appeal is a kind of logical argument in which one proposition is inferred from two others of a certain form....
is a form of inference. Ames (1993: p.210), holds that BhāvavivekaBhavaviveka or Bhavya , was the founder of the Svatantrika tradition of the Mādhyamaka school of Buddhism...
(c.500-c.578) appears to be the first Buddhist logician to employ the 'formal syllogism' (Wylie: sbyor ba'i tshig; Sanskrit: prayoga-vākya) of Indian LogicThe development of Indian logic can be said to date back to the anviksiki of Medhatithi Gautama ; the Sanskrit grammar rules of Pāṇini ; the Vaisheshika school's analysis of atomism ; the analysis of inference by Gotama , founder of the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy; and the tetralemma of...
in expounding the MādhyamakaMadhyamaka is a Buddhist Mahāyāna tradition systematized by Nāgārjuna. Nāgārjuna may have arrived at his positions from a desire to achieve a consistent exegesis of the Buddha's doctrine as recorded in the Nikayas...
which he employed to considerable effect in his commentary to NagarjunaAcharya Nāgārjuna was an Indian philosopher and the founder of the Madhyamaka school of Mahāyāna Buddhism....
's MūlamadhyamakakārikāMūlamadhyamakakārikā , or Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way, is a key text by Nagarjuna, one of the most important Buddhist philosophers...
, entitled the Prajñāpradīpa. Though due to the work of Anacker (2005, rev.ed.) and those upon whom his work is founded, we know that the first Buddhist to refine the syllogism to its three line form is Vasubhandu.
Dharmic logic in Western discourse & literature review
Vidyabhusana (1921), Randle (1930) and StcherbatskyFyodor Ippolitovich Shcherbatskoy or Stcherbatsky was a Russian Indologist who, in large part, was responsible for laying the foundations in the Western world for the scholarly study of Buddhist philosophy....
(1930)
Lineage
Dr S.C. Vidyabhusana, Rahula Sankrityayana, Dr M. K. Ganguli, A. Vostrikov, Prof. Giuseppe TucciGiuseppe Tucci , was an Italian scholar of oriental cultures, specialising in Tibet and history of Buddhism. He was fluent in several European languages, Sanskrit, Bengali, Pali, Prakrit, Chinese and Tibetan and he taught at the University of Rome La Sapienza until his death...
, B. Baradiin, V. Vassiliev (1818—1900), E. E. Obermiller (1901-1935), Prof. Gerhard Oberhammer, Prof. E. Franwallner, F. Th. Stcherbatsky, E. Steikellner.
Robinson (1957: p.295) holds that Nakamura (1954), (building upon the methodology of Schayer [1933]):
...presents the case for the superiority of modern scientific, notational logic as an instrument for investigating Indian logic. Notational statement avoids the pitfalls and awkwardness of linguistic statement and rhetorical logic. It does not necessitate conversion of Indian forms into the standard forms of traditional Western logic, but clarifies the traditional Indian structure without requiring reformulation. To Nakamura's points I may add that modern logic asks a greater range of questions and hence sharpens the observation of the investigator.
Pramana sets as determining traditions of Dharma
Decisive in distinguishing Buddhadharma from what is generally understood as Sanatana DharmaThe Sanskrit term Sanātana Dharm or Dharmam Sanātanam , lit. "the way of life", is an epithet used natively in Indian Religions, notably Hinduism and early Buddhism to collectively refer to their religious practices and beliefs respectively...
is the issue of epistemological justification. All schools of Indian logicThe development of Indian logic can be said to date back to the anviksiki of Medhatithi Gautama ; the Sanskrit grammar rules of Pāṇini ; the Vaisheshika school's analysis of atomism ; the analysis of inference by Gotama , founder of the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy; and the tetralemma of...
recognize various sets of 'valid justifications for knowledge', or pramanaPramana is an epistemological term in Hindu and Buddhist dialectic, debate and discourse.Hetuvidya and Pramāṇavāda collectively hold the semantic field of what may be understood in the English language as Indian and Buddhist Epistemology and Logic.-In Hinduism:Different systems of Hindu...
– the Buddhadharma recognizes a pramanaPramana is an epistemological term in Hindu and Buddhist dialectic, debate and discourse.Hetuvidya and Pramāṇavāda collectively hold the semantic field of what may be understood in the English language as Indian and Buddhist Epistemology and Logic.-In Hinduism:Different systems of Hindu...
set that is smaller than the other Dharmic Traditions. Most pramanavada of Dharmic Traditions accept 'perceptionIn philosophy, psychology, and the cognitive sciences, perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory information. It is a task far more complex than was imagined in the 1950s and 1960s, when it was predicted that building perceiving machines would take about a decade,...
' (Sanskrit: pratyakṣa) and 'inference' (Sanskrit: anumāna), for example, but for some schools of Sanatana Dharma and Buddhadharma the 'received textual tradition' (Sanskrit: āgamāḥ) is an epistemological category equal to perception and inference (although this is not necessarily true for some other schools). The Buddhadharma accepts 'received textual tradition' or āgamāḥ, including BuddhavacanaBuddhavacana, from Pali means "the Word of the Buddha". It refers to the original sayings of the Buddha but is sometimes used to simply refer to any sacred writing of the various Buddhist traditions...
, only if it accords with pratyakṣa and anumāna. Historically, Shakyamuni Buddha was qualifying the unquestionable authority of the Vedas on grounds of ahimsaAhimsa is a Sanskrit term meaning to do no harm . It is an important tenet of the religions that originated in ancient India . Ahimsa is a rule of conduct that bars the killing or injuring of living beings...
as according to the Vedic Tradition of Sanatana Dharma, the VedasThe Vedas are a large body of texts originating in Ancient India. The texts are composed in Vedic Sanskrit and form the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature, and the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism....
are
{{Cleanup|date=October 2008}}
'Buddhist Logic', the categorical nomenclature modern Western discourse has extended to Buddhadharma traditions of 'Hetuvidya' (Sanskrit) and 'Pramanavada' (Sanskrit), which arose circa 500CE, is a particular development, application and lineage of continuity of 'Indian LogicThe development of Indian logic can be said to date back to the anviksiki of Medhatithi Gautama ; the Sanskrit grammar rules of Pāṇini ; the Vaisheshika school's analysis of atomism ; the analysis of inference by Gotama , founder of the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy; and the tetralemma of...
', from which it seceded. Indian logic, and Buddhist Logic --in main heralded by DignāgaDignāga was an Indian scholar and one of the Buddhist founders of Indian logic....
(c 480-540 CE)-- are both primarily studies of 'inference'-patterns, where ‘inference’ is a gloss of anumāna (Sanskrit).
Sadhukhan, et al. (1994: p.7) frames the centrality of 'syllogism' to Buddhist Logic and foregrounds its indivisibility as an investigative, authenticating and proofing tool instituted to establish the valid cognitive insights of the Buddhadharma:
Buddhist logic obviously contains the forms and nature of syllogism, the essence of judgement, etc. for which it deserves the name of logic. But that logic is not only logic it also establishes the doctrines of the Buddhists. Thus the philosophical tenets were the fulcrum and the logic developed as tools to establish those.
Following the work of TucciGiuseppe Tucci , was an Italian scholar of oriental cultures, specialising in Tibet and history of Buddhism. He was fluent in several European languages, Sanskrit, Bengali, Pali, Prakrit, Chinese and Tibetan and he taught at the University of Rome La Sapienza until his death...
(1929) and the critique of Anacker (2005, rev.ed.) upon the collation of FrauwallnerErich Frauwallner was an Austrian professor, a pioneer in the field of Buddhist Studies.-Career and life:...
(1957), it is now understood that VasubandhuVasubandhu was, according to Mahayana Buddhist tradition, an Indian Buddhist scholar-monk, and along with his half-brother Asanga, one of the main founders of the Indian Yogācāra school. However, some scholars consider Vasubandhu to be two distinct people. Vasubandhu is one of the most...
's Vāda-vidhi ("A Method for Argumentation") refined the five argument logic of the Nyāya-sūtra to a three argument form and not his pupil Dignāga. In addition to pruning the two redundant arguments from the syllogism, Vasubandhu tendered a further qualification: he posited that a sound relationship, a 'logical pervasion' (vyāpti) needs to be defined between the first and second arguments, a relationship between the 'Demonstrandum' (pratijna) and the 'Justification' (hetu) that is assumed in the Nyāya-sūtra and other literature of the Nyāya' is the name given to one of the six orthodox or astika schools of Hindu philosophy—specifically the school of logic...
school. This logical pervasion is required to fashion sound arguments. Vasubandhu's Vāda-vidhi was reconstructed by Frauwallner from embedded quotations harvested from the works of Dignāga, amongst others. Dignāga, oft-cited as the wellspring of the logical triune in the Buddhadharma, is now invalidated.
Qualifications of what is signified by the lexical signifier 'Logic' in the Dharmic context
Logic [Dharmic traditions] ≠ Logic[Classical logic]
‘Indian Logic’ should not be understood as logic in the sense of ‘AristotelianAristotelian matters may refer to:* Aristotle * Aristotelianism, the philosophical tradition begun by Aristotle...
syllogistic’ (Greek or Classical LogicClassical logic identifies a class of formal logics that have been most intensively studied and most widely used. They are characterised by a number of properties:#Law of the excluded middle and Double negative elimination;#Law of noncontradiction;...
) or ‘modern predicate calculus’ (modern Western LogicLogic, from the Greek λογική is the art and science of reasoning. More specifically, it is defined by the Penguin Encyclopedia to be "The formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning". As a discipline, logic dates back to Aristotle, who established its...
), but as anumāna-theory, a system in its own right. ‘Indian Logic’ was influenced by the study of grammar, whereas Greek or Classical Logic which principally informed modern Western Logic was influenced by the study of mathematics.
'Buddhist logic' (English)
Vidyabhusana (1921), Randle (1930) and StcherbatskyFyodor Ippolitovich Shcherbatskoy or Stcherbatsky was a Russian Indologist who, in large part, was responsible for laying the foundations in the Western world for the scholarly study of Buddhist philosophy....
(1930) employed terms such as “Indian Logic” and “Buddhist Logic'Buddhist Logic', the categorical nomenclature modern Western discourse has extended to Buddhadharma traditions of 'Hetuvidya' and 'Pramanavada' , which arose circa 500CE, is a particular development, application and lineage of continuity of 'Indian Logic', from which it seceded...
” which established this terminology, though a key difference between Western Logic and Indian Logic is that certain epistemological issues are included within Indian Logic; whereas, in modern Western Logic they are deliberately excluded. Indian Logic includes general questions regarding the ‘nature of the derivation of knowledge’, epistemology, from information supplied by evidence, evidence which in turn may be another item of knowledge.
'Anumana' (Sanskrit)
Etymology: ‘anu’ subsequent + manas ‘perception, mind’ ) is identified as a ‘source of knowledge’, a pramāṇaPramana is an epistemological term in Hindu and Buddhist dialectic, debate and discourse.Hetuvidya and Pramāṇavāda collectively hold the semantic field of what may be understood in the English language as Indian and Buddhist Epistemology and Logic.-In Hinduism:Different systems of Hindu...
. Though not the founders of 'Indian logic', the Nyaya' is the name given to one of the six orthodox or astika schools of Hindu philosophy—specifically the school of logic...
school first codified and established a 'system of logic'. The Nyāya recognized four 'sources of knowledge' (pramanaPramana is an epistemological term in Hindu and Buddhist dialectic, debate and discourse.Hetuvidya and Pramāṇavāda collectively hold the semantic field of what may be understood in the English language as Indian and Buddhist Epistemology and Logic.-In Hinduism:Different systems of Hindu...
): perception, inference, comparison and testimony.
Antecedents and secession
'Nyāya' is the name given to one of the six orthodox or astika schools of Hindu philosophy—specifically the school of logic...
', (Sanskrit: "recursion", with the semantic amplification of 'syllogismA syllogism or logical appeal is a kind of logical argument in which one proposition is inferred from two others of a certain form....
, inference') is the name given to one of the six 'orthodox' (astika) schools of Sanatana Dharma, which may be understood as the "the school of logic". They Nyaya is founded in the Nyaya SutrasThe Nyāya Sūtras are an ancient Indian text on of philosophy composed by ' The sutras contain five chapters, each with two sections...
, attributed to Gotama (2nd century CE). Buddhist logic inherited much of the architecture of Nyaya's methodology, but where the Nyaya recognised a set of four pramanas: perception, inference, comparison and testimony, the logic of Buddhadharma only recognized two, perception and inference.
Syllogism
A syllogismA syllogism or logical appeal is a kind of logical argument in which one proposition is inferred from two others of a certain form....
is a form of inference. Ames (1993: p.210), holds that BhāvavivekaBhavaviveka or Bhavya , was the founder of the Svatantrika tradition of the Mādhyamaka school of Buddhism...
(c.500-c.578) appears to be the first Buddhist logician to employ the 'formal syllogism' (Wylie: sbyor ba'i tshig; Sanskrit: prayoga-vākya) of Indian LogicThe development of Indian logic can be said to date back to the anviksiki of Medhatithi Gautama ; the Sanskrit grammar rules of Pāṇini ; the Vaisheshika school's analysis of atomism ; the analysis of inference by Gotama , founder of the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy; and the tetralemma of...
in expounding the MādhyamakaMadhyamaka is a Buddhist Mahāyāna tradition systematized by Nāgārjuna. Nāgārjuna may have arrived at his positions from a desire to achieve a consistent exegesis of the Buddha's doctrine as recorded in the Nikayas...
which he employed to considerable effect in his commentary to NagarjunaAcharya Nāgārjuna was an Indian philosopher and the founder of the Madhyamaka school of Mahāyāna Buddhism....
's MūlamadhyamakakārikāMūlamadhyamakakārikā , or Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way, is a key text by Nagarjuna, one of the most important Buddhist philosophers...
, entitled the Prajñāpradīpa. Though due to the work of Anacker (2005, rev.ed.) and those upon whom his work is founded, we know that the first Buddhist to refine the syllogism to its three line form is Vasubhandu.
Dharmic logic in Western discourse & literature review
Vidyabhusana (1921), Randle (1930) and StcherbatskyFyodor Ippolitovich Shcherbatskoy or Stcherbatsky was a Russian Indologist who, in large part, was responsible for laying the foundations in the Western world for the scholarly study of Buddhist philosophy....
(1930)
Lineage
Dr S.C. Vidyabhusana, Rahula Sankrityayana, Dr M. K. Ganguli, A. Vostrikov, Prof. Giuseppe TucciGiuseppe Tucci , was an Italian scholar of oriental cultures, specialising in Tibet and history of Buddhism. He was fluent in several European languages, Sanskrit, Bengali, Pali, Prakrit, Chinese and Tibetan and he taught at the University of Rome La Sapienza until his death...
, B. Baradiin, V. Vassiliev (1818—1900), E. E. Obermiller (1901-1935), Prof. Gerhard Oberhammer, Prof. E. Franwallner, F. Th. Stcherbatsky, E. Steikellner.
Robinson (1957: p.295) holds that Nakamura (1954), (building upon the methodology of Schayer [1933]):
...presents the case for the superiority of modern scientific, notational logic as an instrument for investigating Indian logic. Notational statement avoids the pitfalls and awkwardness of linguistic statement and rhetorical logic. It does not necessitate conversion of Indian forms into the standard forms of traditional Western logic, but clarifies the traditional Indian structure without requiring reformulation. To Nakamura's points I may add that modern logic asks a greater range of questions and hence sharpens the observation of the investigator.
Pramana sets as determining traditions of Dharma
Decisive in distinguishing Buddhadharma from what is generally understood as Sanatana DharmaThe Sanskrit term Sanātana Dharm or Dharmam Sanātanam , lit. "the way of life", is an epithet used natively in Indian Religions, notably Hinduism and early Buddhism to collectively refer to their religious practices and beliefs respectively...
is the issue of epistemological justification. All schools of Indian logicThe development of Indian logic can be said to date back to the anviksiki of Medhatithi Gautama ; the Sanskrit grammar rules of Pāṇini ; the Vaisheshika school's analysis of atomism ; the analysis of inference by Gotama , founder of the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy; and the tetralemma of...
recognize various sets of 'valid justifications for knowledge', or pramanaPramana is an epistemological term in Hindu and Buddhist dialectic, debate and discourse.Hetuvidya and Pramāṇavāda collectively hold the semantic field of what may be understood in the English language as Indian and Buddhist Epistemology and Logic.-In Hinduism:Different systems of Hindu...
– the Buddhadharma recognizes a pramanaPramana is an epistemological term in Hindu and Buddhist dialectic, debate and discourse.Hetuvidya and Pramāṇavāda collectively hold the semantic field of what may be understood in the English language as Indian and Buddhist Epistemology and Logic.-In Hinduism:Different systems of Hindu...
set that is smaller than the other Dharmic Traditions. Most pramanavada of Dharmic Traditions accept 'perceptionIn philosophy, psychology, and the cognitive sciences, perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory information. It is a task far more complex than was imagined in the 1950s and 1960s, when it was predicted that building perceiving machines would take about a decade,...
' (Sanskrit: pratyakṣa) and 'inference' (Sanskrit: anumāna), for example, but for some schools of Sanatana Dharma and Buddhadharma the 'received textual tradition' (Sanskrit: āgamāḥ) is an epistemological category equal to perception and inference (although this is not necessarily true for some other schools). The Buddhadharma accepts 'received textual tradition' or āgamāḥ, including BuddhavacanaBuddhavacana, from Pali means "the Word of the Buddha". It refers to the original sayings of the Buddha but is sometimes used to simply refer to any sacred writing of the various Buddhist traditions...
, only if it accords with pratyakṣa and anumāna. Historically, Shakyamuni Buddha was qualifying the unquestionable authority of the Vedas on grounds of ahimsaAhimsa is a Sanskrit term meaning to do no harm . It is an important tenet of the religions that originated in ancient India . Ahimsa is a rule of conduct that bars the killing or injuring of living beings...
as according to the Vedic Tradition of Sanatana Dharma, the VedasThe Vedas are a large body of texts originating in Ancient India. The texts are composed in Vedic Sanskrit and form the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature, and the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism....
are {{IASTIn Hinduism, Apaurusheyatva , Sanskrit, "being unauthored", is used to describe the Vedas, the main scripture in Hinduism. This implies that the Vedas are not authored by any agency, be it human or divine...
"not of human agency", are supposed to have been directly revealed, and thus are called śrutiFor other meanings, see Śruti .' is a term that describes the sacred texts comprising the central canon of Hinduism and is one of the three main sources of dharma and therefore is also influential within Hindu Law...
("what is heard").. Vedic injunctions required sacrifices, Śrauta' traditions are conservative ritualistic traditions of historical Vedic religion in Hinduism, based on the body of Śruti literature. They persist in a few places in India today although constituting a clear minority within Hinduism...
(an etymon of the English 'slaughter'), particularly 'animal sacrifices' (Pashu-YajnaIn Hinduism, Yajña is a ritual of sacrifice derived from the practice of Vedic times. It is performed to please the gods or to attain certain wishes...
, AshvamedhaThe Ashvamedha was one of the most important royal rituals of Vedic religion, described in detail in the Yajurveda...
) and which the compassionate Shakyamuni Buddha countered.
Thus, in the Sanatana Dharma traditions, if a claim was made that could not be substantiated by appeal to the textual canon, it would be considered as ridiculous as a claim that the sky was green and, conversely, a claim which could not be substantiated via conventional means might still be justified through textual reference, differentiating this from the epistemology of hard scienceScientific method refers to a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific...
. Whereas, some schools of Buddhadharma, on the other hand, rejected an inflexible reverence of accepted doctrine. As the BuddhavacanaBuddhavacana, from Pali means "the Word of the Buddha". It refers to the original sayings of the Buddha but is sometimes used to simply refer to any sacred writing of the various Buddhist traditions...
Kalama SuttaThe Kesamutti Sutta , or better known as Kalama Sutta , is a Buddhist sutta in the Anguttara Nikaya of the Tipitaka. It is often cited by Mahayana and Theravada Buddhists alike...
III.65 states:
{{quote|Do not accept anything by mere tradition ... Do not accept anything just because it accords with your scriptures ... Do not accept anything merely because it agrees with your pre-conceived notions ... But when you know for yourselves – these things are moral, these things are blameless, these things are praised by the wise, these things, when performed and undertaken, conduce to well-being and happiness – then do you live acting accordingly.}}
The TheravadaTheravada Theravada Theravada (Pāli: थेरवाद theravāda (cf Sanskrit: स्थविरवाद sthaviravāda); literally, "the Teaching of the Elders" or "the Ancient Teaching", is the oldest surviving Buddhist school. It was founded in India...
commentary, ascribed to DhammapalaDhammapala was the name of at least two great Theravada Buddhist commentators. One who lived at the Badara Tittha Vihara, near the east coast of India, just a little south of where Chennai now stands, wrote the commentaries on seven of the shorter canonical books, consisting almost entirely of...
, on the NettipakaranaThe Nettipakarana is a Buddhist scripture, sometimes included in the Khuddaka Nikaya of Theravada Buddhism's Pali Canon....
, says (Pali pamāṇa is equivalent to Sanskrit pramāṇa): "na hi pāḷito aññaṃ pamāṇataraṃ atthi (quoted in Pali Text SocietyThe Pali Text Society was founded in 1881 by T.W. Rhys Davids "to foster and promote the study of Pali texts".Pali is the language in which the texts of the Theravada school of Buddhism is preserved...
edition of the Nettipakarana, 1902, page XI) which Nanamoli translates as: "for there is no other criterion beyond a text" (The Guide, Pali Text Society, 1962, page xi
Hetuvidya
Hetu = conditionality, causation (hetu and pratyaya), contending with Buddhist agency...karmaKarma in Indian religions is the concept of "action" or "deed", understood as that which causes the entire cycle of cause and effect originating in ancient India and treated in Hindu, Jain, Sikh and Buddhist philosophies..'Karma' is an Eastern religious concept in contradistinction to...
VidyaVidya, Vidhya is a Sanskrit name for knowledge. It is frequently used in Hinduism as honorific stemming from the Puranic conception of knowledge and learning. Vidya is an epithet of the Hindu goddess Sarasvati, consort of Brahma according to Hindu beliefs...
= (Sanskrit: Vidya; Tibetan: RigpaRigpa is the primordial, nondual awareness advocated by the Dzogchen and Mahamudra teachings.-Apperception:Rigpa is a contraction of "rang rig pa" which includes both "rig pa" and "rang rig"....
), AvidyaAvidyā is a Sanskrit word that means "ignorance", "delusion", "unlearned", "unwise" and that which is not, or runs counter to, vidya. It is used extensively in Hindu texts, including the Upanishads and as well in Buddhist thought...
Early Buddhism and the arising of Nagarjuna
Early Buddhist philosophers and exegetes of one particular early schoolThe Early Buddhist schools are those schools into which, according to most scholars, the Buddhist monastic Sangha initially split, due originally to differences in Vinaya, and later also due to doctrinal differences and geographical separateness of groups of monks.The original Sangha split into the...
(as opposed to MahayanaMahayana is one of the two main existing branches of Buddhism and a term for classification of Buddhist philosophies and practice. It was founded in India...
), the SarvastivadinsSarvastivada is an early school of Buddhism that held to 'the existence of all dharmas in the past, present and future, the 'three times'. The Abhidharma , a later text, states:-Origination and history:According to scholar Charles Prebish,...
, created a pluralistPluralism is the name of entirely unrelated positions in opposition to monism in metaphysics and epistemology. In metaphysics, pluralism claims a plurality of basic substances making up the world; in epistemology, pluralism claims that there are several conflicting but still true descriptions of...
metaphysical and phenomenological system, in which all experiences of people, things and events can be broken down into smaller and smaller perceptual or perceptual-ontologicalOntology is the philosophical study of the nature of being, existence or reality in general, as well as of the basic categories of being and their relations...
units called dharmas. Other schools incorporated some parts of this theory and criticized others. The Sautrantikas, another early school, and the TheravadinsTheravada Theravada Theravada (Pāli: थेरवाद theravāda (cf Sanskrit: स्थविरवाद sthaviravāda); literally, "the Teaching of the Elders" or "the Ancient Teaching", is the oldest surviving Buddhist school. It was founded in India...
, the only surviving early Buddhist school, criticized the realistContemporary philosophical realism is the belief in a reality that is completely ontologically independent of our conceptual schemes, linguistic practices, beliefs, etc. Philosophers who profess realism also typically believe that truth consists in a belief's correspondence to reality...
standpoint of the Sarvastivadins.
The Mahayanist NagarjunaAcharya Nāgārjuna was an Indian philosopher and the founder of the Madhyamaka school of Mahāyāna Buddhism....
, one of the most influential Buddhist thinkers, promoted classical Buddhist emphasis on phenomena and attacked Sarvastivada realism and Sautrantika nominalismNominalism is a metaphysical view in philosophy according to which general or abstract terms and predicates exist, while universals or abstract objects, which are sometimes thought to correspond to these terms, do not exist. Thus, there are at least two main versions of nominalism...
in his magnum opus The Fundamental Verses on the Middle WayMūlamadhyamakakārikā , or Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way, is a key text by Nagarjuna, one of the most important Buddhist philosophers...
.
Robinson (1957: p.293) makes an opinion that builds upon the foundation of StcherbatskyFyodor Ippolitovich Shcherbatskoy or Stcherbatsky was a Russian Indologist who, in large part, was responsible for laying the foundations in the Western world for the scholarly study of Buddhist philosophy....
(1927):
The Madhyamaka denies the validity of logic, i.e., of discursive conceptual thought, to establish ultimate truth. On the charge that in doing so he himself resorts to some logic, he replies that the logic of common life is sufficient for showing that all systems contradict one another that and our fundamental conceptions do not resist scrutiny.
Catuskoti
CatuskotiCatuṣkoṭi is a logical argument of a 'suite of four discrete functions' or 'an indivisible quaternity' that has multiple applications and has been important in the Dharmic traditions of Indian logic and the Buddhadharma logico-epistemological traditions, particularly those of the Madhyamaka...
(Sanskrit), had antecedents in the VedasThe Vedas are a large body of texts originating in Ancient India. The texts are composed in Vedic Sanskrit and form the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature, and the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism....
and is also evident in a mutually iterating form known by the Greek term, 'TetralemmaThe tetralemma is a figure that features prominently in the classical logic of the Greeks. It states that with reference to any a logical proposition X, there are four possibilities:-External links:* Wiktionary definition of tetralemma*...
' where 'tetra' holds the semantic fieldA semantic field is a set of lexemes in a named conceptual area that interrelate and define each other in specific ways. For example, the semantic field of "dog" includes "canine" and "to trail persistently" . A general and intuitive description is that words in a semantic field are not synonymous,...
of "four" + 'lemma' hold the semantic field "auxiliary proposition".
Indian Transmission lineages to Tibet and concomitant translations
Tillemans (1998: p.1), in discussing the Tibetan translation and assimilation of the Buddhadharma logico-epistemological traditions embodied by the legacy of DignāgaDignāga was an Indian scholar and one of the Buddhist founders of Indian logic....
(c 480-540 CE) and DharmakīrtiDharmakirti , was an Indian scholar and one of the Buddhist founders of Indian philosophical logic. He was one of the primary theorists of Buddhist atomism, according to which the only items considered to exist are momentary Buddhist atoms and states of consciousness.-History:Born around the turn...
(ca. 7th century), identifies two currents and transmission streams:
- first current, principally geographical located at Sangpu Neutok and grounded in the works of Ngok Lodzawa Loden Shayrap (1059–1109) and Chapa Chögyi Sengge (1109–69) and their disciples.. Chapa’s Tshad ma’i bsdus pa (English: 'Summaries of Epistemology and Logic') became the groundwork for the ‘Collected Topics’ (Tibetan: Düra; Wylie: bsdus grwa) literature, which, in large, furnished Gelugpa base logical architecture and epistemology.
- second current of Sakya Pandita
Sakya Pandita Kunga Gyeltsen or Kunga Gylatshan Pal Zangpo was a Tibetan spiritual leader and Buddhist scholar and the fourth of the Five Venerable Supreme Sakya Masters of Tibet. Kunga Gyeltsen is generally known simply as Sakya Pandita, a title given to him in recognition of his scholarly...
(1182–1251) who revealed the termaTerma are key Tibetan Buddhist and Bön teachings, which the tradition holds were originally esoterically hidden by various adepts such as Padmasambhava and his consorts in the 8th century for future discovery at auspicious times by other adepts, known as tertöns. As such, they represent a tradition...
Tsod-ma rigs-gter (English: "Treasury of Logic on Valid Cognition"), who vehemently redressed the logical architecture of the Gangpu Neutok positions.
Sangpu Neutok (Wylie: gSang-phu Ne'u-thog)
DudjomDudjom Rinpoche is the title of a prominent line of tulkus of the Nyingmapa order of Tibetan Buddhism. The most recent Dudjom Rinpoche was born in 1904 in Southern Tibet in a region called the "hidden land" of Pema Ko. He died on January 17, 1987 at his residence in Dordogne, France...
(1904-87), et al. (1991: p.577) hold that 'Sangpu Neutok' (Wylie: gSang-phu Ne'u-thog), a seminaryA seminary, theological college, or divinity school is an institution of higher education for instructing students , sometimes at the postgraduate level, in philosophy, theology, spirituality and the religious life, to prepare students for ordination as clergy or other ministry...
founded 1073 by the 'translator' (Tibetan: lotsawaLotsawa is a Tibetan word used as a title to refer to the native Tibetan translators, such as Vairotsana, Rinchen Zangpo, Marpa and others, who worked alongside Indian scholars or panditas to translate the texts of the buddhist canon into Tibetan from Sanskrit, Chinese and other Asian languages...
) Ngok Lekpei Sherap (1059-1109), was at the time of LongchenpaLongchenpa or Longchen Rabjampa was a major teacher in the Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism. Along with Sakya Pandita and Je Tsongkhapa, he is commonly recognized as one of the three main manifestations of Manjushri to have taught in Central Tibet...
(1308 – 1364/1369) who studied there, "...the great academy for the study of logic in Tibet."
Gelugpa
The VajrayanaVajrayāna Buddhism is also known as Tantric Buddhism, Tantrayāna, Mantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Esoteric Buddhism and the Diamond Vehicle. The period of Vajrayana Buddhism has been classified as the fifth or final period of Indian Buddhism...
tradition of the Tibetan Buddhist Gelugpa with their penchant for dialecticDialectic is a method of argument, which has been central to both Eastern and Western philosophy since ancient times. The word "dialectic" originates in Ancient Greece, and was made popular by Plato's Socratic dialogues...
and courtyard debate instituted, developed and perpetuated the systems of Indian Logic and Buddhist Logic they inherited, significantly contributing and extending the traditions of Hetuvidya and Pramanavada within the logico-epistemological traditions of the Buddhadharma. Particurly, post-CandrakirtiCandrakīrti , was a khenpo of Nālandā Mahāvihāra and a disciple of and a commentator on his works and those of his main disciple, Āryadeva...
(600–c. 650), the Gelugpa refined the CatuskotiCatuṣkoṭi is a logical argument of a 'suite of four discrete functions' or 'an indivisible quaternity' that has multiple applications and has been important in the Dharmic traditions of Indian logic and the Buddhadharma logico-epistemological traditions, particularly those of the Madhyamaka...
and Shunyata into the Prasangika.
Doctrine of Trairūpya
DignagaDignāga was an Indian scholar and one of the Buddhist founders of Indian logic....
's (c 480-540 CE) 'Three Modes' (Sanskrit: TrairūpyaTrairūpya is a conceptual tool of Buddhist logic. The Trairūpya, ‘three conditions’, is oft accredited to Dignaga though is now understood to have originated with his teacher Vasubandhu Trairūpya (Sanskrit; English: "the triple-character of inferential sign") is a conceptual tool of Buddhist...
; Wylie: tshul-gsum)
Dignāga's Hetucakra
HetucakraHetucakra is a Sanskrit text written by Dignaga on the application of his 'three modes’ within the Indian logico-epistemic tradition of the Buddhadharma, sometimes referred to as Buddhist logic....
佛家因明的理性思考 蔡禮德
Hetu－Vidyā Of Rational Thinking. by Choy L.T.http://www.dhalbi.org/publ/journ6/cld j6.pdf
Dharmakirti's Theory of Inference
DharmakirtiDharmakirti , was an Indian scholar and one of the Buddhist founders of Indian philosophical logic. He was one of the primary theorists of Buddhist atomism, according to which the only items considered to exist are momentary Buddhist atoms and states of consciousness.-History:Born around the turn...
(ca. 7th century), was an Indian 'scholar' (panditaPandita means a learned master, scholar or professor in Buddhist philosophy. It can specifically refer to:* Pandita , a brush-footed butterfly genus* Pandita Ramabai, Indian social reformer...
) and Buddhist who contributed significantly to the Buddhist development and application of Indian philosophical logic. He was one of the primary theorists of Buddhist atomism, according to which the only items considered to exist are momentary Buddhist atoms and states of consciousness. The following exposition of Dharmakirti's Theory of Inference was drawn from Prasad (2002).
Right Knowledge
A cognition (C) is Right-Knowledge (samyak-jnana (RK)) when
1) C is not contradicted by experience (avisamvadi) and
2) C’s object of cognition was unknown to the cognizer prior to having C.
From 1), it follows that C could be ascertained to be RK only a-posteriori.
From 2), it follows that only the first cognition of an object could count as RK.
Also, 2) could be ascertained only after 1) is ascertained to be true.
From 1) and 2), it follows that RK is essentially empirical.
Objects of Desire and Their Acquisition
An object-of-desire (purushartha (P)) is either an object-wanted (upadeya, an object of pro-desire), or an object-not-wanted (heya, an object of con-desire). An object-of-indifference (upekshaniya) is an object neither wanted nor not wanted. It is not a P.
RK (jnapaka, an information supplying cause of P) and/or non-empirical knowledge are necessary for P’s attainment. (RK and/or non-empirical knowledge) and karaka, an effectuating cause of P, are sufficient for P’s attainment.
Right Knowledge is desirable for its own sake too, that is, for its intrinsic value.
To attain a certain P; its RK is desired. RK itself can be viewed as an object-of-desire (P’). To attain P’; its (RK)’ is desired. (RK)’ is yet another object-of-desire (P’’), attainment of which it’s (RK)’’ is desired, so on ad infinitum. Thus P cannot be attained. But, for practical purposes, P’ need only be common sense knowledge of P, which one is already assumed to know. Thus the aforementioned infinite regress is avoided and P could be attained.
Perception and Inference
Perception (pratyaksha) is the only mode (pramana) of RK. Perception is not a means to RK. Rather, to perceive is to know. Perception of an object is a direct cognition of it, unmediated by, or independent of, any other cognition.
Definition of a perceivable object (DI):
x is perceived at a place S (Px) iff
1) x exists at S (existential condition (Ex))
2) there must be a perceiver who is sufficiently motivated to perceive x, is properly located wrt to x to perceive it, has healthy eyes, has adequate time at his disposal, is provided with sufficient light in the place, etc.( other necessary conditions (Ox))
The other necessary conditions for the cognition of x and S are the same. S and x must be co-cognizable, ie. they must be cognizable in the same act/mode of cognition, or by the same sense organ.
DI assumes that x by its very nature is not unperceivable. For example, if x is an atom, Ex and Ox maybe be true yet Px would be false since an atom cannot be perceived by the naked eye. Thus an atom is not a valid x, given the above definition of DI.
DI also assumes that the existence of x at s in future cannot be determined by perception. Thus, perception at time t cannot determine the existence of any x after time t.
Anumana is a formally valid deductive inference with true premises. Anumana is a valid, indirect cognition of the object inferred(OI) since it is mediated by, or dependent on, another cognition, that is the cognition of another object called linga, hetu, sadhana (sign, logical reason, mark) with which the sadhya (OI) is invariably, unexceptionally, universally, related. Anumana’s conclusion is entailed by its premises, thus it says nothing which is not already known. Therefore, anumana is not a mode of RK. An inductive inference might say something which is not already known, but not with certainty. Thus it may be contradicted by experience. Therefore, inductive inference too isn’t a mode of RK.
Anumana could be for inference for oneself (svartha-anumana, SA) or inference for someone else (paratha-anumana, PA)
An object can neither be inferred subsequent to its perception, nor be perceived subsequent to its inference.
Inference (anumana)
• All inferences are linguistic.
• An inference’s validity has nothing to do with the intention associated with the inference.
• PA does not yield RK to the demonstrator, but only to the demonstratee.
• There is no logical difference between SA and PA.
• Either the demonstrator demonstrating the truth of a proposition P has acquired knowledge of P’s truth by SA or it has been demonstrated to him/her by someone else by a PA. Thus, each PA has a SA as its basis.
PakshaVakya (PV): It is an existential proposition that asserts that the locus of logical reason (paksha) has a logical mark/sign (hetu). Hetu has three characteristics:
1) It is necessarily present in the paksha.
2) It is present only in things similar (wrt sadhya) to the paksha (sapaksha).
3) It is not present in things dissimilar (wrt sadhya) to the paksha (vipaksha)
All of 1), 2) & 3) are not necessary for all forms of inference.
Three Types of Hetu
1) Anupalabdhi hetu (AH): Px is not true.
2) Svabhava hetu (SH): Identity as logical reason
3) Karya hetu : Effect as logical reason
Vyapti
'Vyāpti' (Sanskrit; English: 'logical pervasion')
Vyapati (V): The universal proposition which states the invariable concomitance, both positive and negative, between a logical mark/sign (hetu) and the object inferred or to be inferred (anumeya or sadhya). Vyapati includes an example (udaharana or drstanta) which exemplifies the relation, both positive and negative, between hetu and sadhya, and also states that the subject of the universal proposition does not denote an empty class.
PV and V together are called as the HetuVakya (HV). HV is necessary and PV must be cognized in anumana.
Nigamana (N): It asserts that the locus of reason (paksha) has the sadhya.
Anupalabdhi-hetu inference' (AHI) and its types
Anupalabdhi-hetu inference' (AHI) and its types:
1) Sva-bhava-anupalabdhi
HV: DI, Ox are true ie. x is uplabdhi-lakshana-prapta(ULP) and AH is true.
N: Ex is false.
Example:
There is no jar there (Ex is false),
because
the jar is, by its very nature, perceivable and
other necessary conditions for its perception are satisfied (Ox is true),
yet the jar is not perceived there (Px is false).
2) Karya-anupalabdhi
Non perception of the effect is the hetu for the non existence of its cause having unobstructed capability to produce it.
Example:
Non existence of a light source is inferred from no visual perception by a perceiver capable of visual perception.
3) Vyapaka-anupalabdhi
Let a thing x (vyapya) be included in a thing y (vyapaka). The non existence of x is inferred from the non perception of y.
Example:
Watermelon seeds do not exist there
because
Watermelon was not perceived there.
4) Svabhava-viruddha-upalabdhi
Non existence of x is inferred from the perception of y, when x and y cannot exist simultaneously.
Example:
There is no fire on the glacier
because
iced water are perceived to be present in the glacier
and
wherever there is iced water there can be no fire.
5) Viruddha-karya-upalabdhi
Non existence of z is inferred from the perception of x, where x is the effect of y and y is the effect of not-z. (Thus x implies y and y implies not-z.)
Example:
Non existence of depression is inferred from the perception of euphoria
Because
The perception of euphoria is an effect of increased serotonin levels in the brain
And
Increased serotonin levels in the brain causes the non existence of depression
6) Viruddha-vyapta-upalabdhi
A is not-x is inferred from A’s dependence on y and y being pervaded by not-x.
Example:
A hurricane is non empty
Because
A hurricane depends on the earth’s atmosphere
And
The earth’s atmosphere is pervaded by non-emptiness
7) Karya-viruddha-upalabdhi
Not-x is inferred from the perception of y, which is antagonistic of z, and z is an effect of x.
Example:
Non starving is inferred from the perception of satiety
because
perception of satiety is antagonistic of the perception of hunger
and
the perception of hunger is caused by starving.
8) Vyapaka-viruddha-upalabdhi
Not-x is inferred from the perception of y, which is antagonistic of z, and z includes/subsumes x.
Example:
Non-attachment is inferred from the perception of indifference, which is antagonistic of desire, and desire subsumes attachment.
9) Karana-anupalabdhi
Non-existence of x is inferred from the non perception of its cause y. It is assumed that the y invariably results in x and y alone results in x.
Example:
Non-existence of appeal is inferred from non perception of beauty.
10) Karana-viruddha-upalabdhi
Assume that y causes x, then the non-existence of x is inferred from the perception of not-y. It is assumed y invariably causes x and y alone causes x.
Example:
Non existence of vibration, in a medium capable of vibration, is inferred from the perception of no sound, in a perceiver capable of aural perception.
11) Karana-viruddha-karya-upalabdhi
Assume that y causes x, then the non-existence of x is inferred from the perception of z, which is the effect of not-y.
Example:
Absence of the perception of danger is inferred from the perception of security.
Absence of fear is inferred from the absence of the perception of danger.
Thus,
Absence of fear is inferred from the perception of security.
Svabhava Hetu Inference (SHI)
A has/is s is inferred from A has/is h, where being h, in a way, is identical to being s. The vyapati in SHI is obvious and is often unstated.
Example:
A is a musical instrument
because
A is a sarod
Karya Hetu Inference (KHI)
Karya Hetu Inference (KHI): The existence of a cause is inferred from the cognition of its effect.
Example:
PV: There is smoke (hetu) on the hill (paksha).
V: Wherever there is smoke, there is fire (sadhya) as in a kitchen (sapaksha), and wherever there is no smoke, there is no fire, as in a pond (vipaksha).
N: Therefore there is fire on the hill.
In the above example the existence of fire (cause) is inferred from the perception of smoke (effect)
AHI, SHI and KHI do not form an exhaustive set of inferences. Thus Dharmakirti’s Theory of Inference is incomplete.
Doctrine of Anyapoha
Apoha is negative abhavatmaka in nature. Apohas are different due to the diversity in apohyas (things to be excluded). The word apoha which is the abridged form of anyapoha means the 'exclusion of negation of others (ataddvyavrtti)'. The word 'cow' gives its own meaning only by the exclusion of all those things which are other than cow. Dingnaga declares : word can express its own meaning only by repudiating opposite meanings, just as the words like 'krtaka'(i.e. that which has origin) designate their meanings only through the exclusion of their opposite like 'akraka'(i.e. that which does not have origin).
Dingnaga admits apoha can also possess some characteristics of the realists' universals such as oneness, enternity, complete subsistence in each individual etc. Dingnaga apprehends concept of universal through the negation of its non-self. He explains that if the non-self of a universal is absent in a locus, its presence in that locus can be inferred. For example, a cow is qualified by the deniability of the non-cow. This concept of Dingnaga similar to that Hegel,he also believes that universality of a concept is posited through its negativity.
Apoha is not the object of sense perception (pratyaksa)Itis apprehensible only through word or inference.In essence, Dingnaga uses anyyapohaas a substitute for universal.The concept of apoha depends upon the law of contradiction. The words blue and non-blue negate each other just because they are opposite to each other. According to Dingnaga,similar exclusion of others is due to the non-apprehension of the meaning of a particular word in other words. A particular word excludes the other particular words because its own meaning is not apprehends in the other ones.For example, the word simsapa-tree excludes the word palasa-tree
because its own meaning is not available in the latter one.
Lexicon
- Apoha:
- Argument: vada, rtsod pa
- Characteristic: laksana, mtshan nid
- Condition: pratyaya, rkyen
- Demonstrandum: sadhya, bsgrub par bya ba
- Demonstrator: sadhaka, grub byed
- Dialectician: tartika, rtog ge ba
- Dialectics: tarka, rtog ge
- Direct perception: pratyaksa, mnon sum
- Event: dharma, chos
- Event-associate: dharmin, chos can
- Exemplification: drstanta, dpe
- Inference: anumana, rjes su dpag pa
- Interference: vyavakirana, hdres pa
- Invariable concomitance: avinabhava, med na mi hbyun ba
- Judgment: prajnanana, shes-rab
- Justification: hetu, gtan-tshigs
- Means of cognition: pramana, tshad pa
- Means of evidence: linga, rtags
- Pervading/pervasion/logical pervasion: vyapti, khyab pa
Further reading
- van der Kuijp, L. W. J. (1978). 'Phya-pa Chos-kyi seng-ge's impact on Tibetan epistemological theory'. Journal of Indian Philosophy. Volume 5, Number 4, August, 1978. Springer Netherlands. ISSN: 0022-1791 (Print) 1573-0395 (Online)
- Van Der Kuijp, Leonard W. J. (1987). 'An early Tibetan view of the soteriology of Buddhist epistemology: The case of 'Bri-gung 'jig-rten mgon-po'. Journal of Indian Philosophy. Volume 15, Number 1, March, 1987. ISSN: 0022-1791 (Print) 1573-0395 (Online)
- Jayatilleke, K.N. (1967). 'The Logic of Four Alternatives'. Philosophy East and West. Vol.17:1-4. Hawaii, USA: University of Hawaii Press. Source: [] (accessed:)
- Vidhabhusana, Satis Chandra (1907). History of the Mediaeval School of Indian Logic. Calcutta University.
External sources
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