Biblical archaeology

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Biblical archaeology

For the movement associated with William F. Albright and known as Biblical archaeology, see Biblical archaeology school
Biblical archaeology school

The Biblical archaeology school is the name given to a school of archeology founded on the work of William F. Albright, Director of the American Schools of Oriental Research , through the 1920s and 1930s and editor of ASOR's Bulletin until 1968....
. For the interpretation of Biblical archaeology in relation to Biblical historicity, see The Bible and history
The Bible and history

The historicity of the Bible addresses in what ways the Bible is historically accurate; the extent to which it can be used as a historic source and what qualifications should be applied, from the academic viewpoint....
.

This article presents technical information on major excavations and artifacts relating to Biblical archaeology

For the movement associated with William F. Albright and known as Biblical archaeology, see Biblical archaeology school. For the interpretation of Biblical archaeology in relation to Biblical historicity, see The Bible and history....
, defined as that archaeology which concerns itself with the Biblical world.

Overview
The Israel Antiquities Authority

Israel Antiquities Authority

The Israel Antiquities Authority [???? ???????] is an independent Israel governmental authority responsible for enforcing the 1978 Law of Antiquities by regulating excavation and conservation, and by promoting research....
, housed in the Palestine Archaeological Museum

Rockefeller Museum

The Rockefeller Museum, formerly the Palestine Archaeological Museum, is an archaeology museum located in East Jerusalem that houses a large collection of artifacts unearthed in the excavations conducted in Palestine beginning in the late 19th century....
in Jerusalem

Jerusalem

Jerusalem is the capital of Israel and its List of Israeli cities in both population and area, with a population of 747,600 residents over an area of if Positions on Jerusalem East Jerusalem is included....
, has a broad mandate to enforce the 1978 Law of Antiquities by regulating excavation and conservation and promoting research in the territories under the control of the State of Israel.

The , founded in 1974, publishes the Biblical Archaeology Review

Biblical Archaeology Review

Biblical Archaeology Review is a publication that seeks to connect the academic study of archaeology to a broad general audience seeking to understand the world of the Bible and the Near and Middle East ....
, which, although not a scholarly publication (i.e., its articles are not peer-reviewed), carries articles by respected scholars on current archaeological finds and topics.

In December 2004 Jerusalem antiquities dealer Oded Golan

Oded Golan

Oded Golan is an Israeli engineer and famous Israeli antiquities collector and forger. Some of the artifacts he has uncovered have produced great excitement in religious and archaeology circles, and have caused allegations of fraud and forgery....
and several accomplices were indicted by the Israeli police for forging artifacts, frequently by adding spurious inscriptions to genuinely ancient pieces.

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Encyclopedia

Biblical archaeology

Overview

The Israel Antiquities Authority

Israel Antiquities Authority

Rockefeller Museum

Jerusalem

Biblical Archaeology Review

Oded Golan

Periods in Biblical archaeolgy

The list of periods for Syro-Palestinian archaeology

Syro-Palestinian archaeology

Syro-Palestinian archaeology is a term used to refer to archaeological research conducted in the southern Levant. Palestinian archaeology is also commonly used in its stead, particularly when the area of inquiry centers on ancient Palestine....
below is drawn from the definitions provided by the Mercer Dictionary of the Bible, p. 55.

Bronze age
Bronze Age

The Bronze Age is, with respect to a given prehistory, the period in that society when the most advanced metalworking included smelting copper and tin from naturally-occurring outcroppings of copper and tin ores, creating a bronze alloy by melting those metals together, and casting them into bronze artifact s....
: 3,200-1,200 BCE

Early Bronze
Bronze Age

The Bronze Age is, with respect to a given prehistory, the period in that society when the most advanced metalworking included smelting copper and tin from naturally-occurring outcroppings of copper and tin ores, creating a bronze alloy by melting those metals together, and casting them into bronze artifact s....
(EB) Age = 3200-2200 BCE
Middle Bronze (MB) Age = 2200-1550 BCE

MB I (formerly MB IIA) = 2200-2000
MB II (formerly MB IIA) = 2,000-1,750
MB III (formerly MB IIC) = 1750-1550

Late Bronze (LB) Age = 1550-1200 BCE

LB I = 1550-1400
LB II = 1400-1200

Iron Age
Iron Age

In archaeology, the Iron Age was the stage in the development of any people in which tools and weapons whose main ingredient was iron were prominent....
: 1200-586 BCE

Iron I = 1200-1000
Iron IIA = 1000-930
Iron IIB = 930-721
Iron IIC = 721-586

Bablyonian period
Neo-Babylonian Empire

The term Neo-Babylonian or Chaldean refers to Babylonia under the rule of the 11th dynasty, from the revolt of Nabopolassar in 626 BC until the invasion of Cyrus the Great in 539 BC, notably including the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II....
: 586-539 BCE
Persian period
Persian Empire

The 'Persian Empire' was a series of successive Iranian or Persianization empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland, and beyond in Southwest Asia, South Asia, Central Asia and the Caucasus....
: 539-332 BCE
Hellenistic period
Hellenistic period

The Hellenistic period describes the era which followed the conquests of Alexander the Great. During this time, Greek cultural influence and power was at its zenith in Europe and Asia....
= 332-63 BCE

Early Hellenistic = 332-198
Late Hellenistic = 198-63

Roman period: 63 BCE-324 CE

Table I: Excavations and surveys

Year	Site	Biblical name	Excavated by	Comment
1841	Survey	N/a	Edward Robinson Edward Robinson (scholar) Edward Robinson was an United States biblical scholar, known as the "Father of Biblical Geography"....	Robinson's Biblical Researches in Palestine, the Sinai, Petrae and Adjacent Regions, based on his survey of the Near East conducted over several years, proposed Biblical names for modern sites.
1871-77	Survey	N/a	Charles Warren	The Survey of Western Palestine, published by the Palestine Exploration Fund Palestine Exploration Fund The Palestine Exploration Fund is a United Kingdom society, it is often simply known as the PEF.... , reflected Warren's detailed field surveys in Palestine and especially the Temple Mount Temple Mount The Temple Mount , also known as Mount Moriah and by Muslims as the Noble Sanctuary , is a religious site in the Old City of Jerusalem of Jerusalem.... in Jerusalem. Major discoveries included the foundation stones of Herod's Temple Herod's Temple Herod's Temple in Jerusalem was a massive expansion of the Temple Mount and construction of a completely new and much larger Jewish Temple by King Herod the Great around 19 BCE.... , the first Iron Age Hebrew inscriptions (jar handles with LMLK seals), and water shafts under the City of David.
1890	Tell el-Hesi Tell el-Hesi Tell el-Hesi is an archaeological site in Israel. It was the first major site excavated in Palestine, first by Flinders Petrie in 1890 and later by Frederick Jones Bliss in 1891 and 1892, both sponsored by the Palestine Exploration Fund....	Eglon	Sir William Petrie	The site was believed at the time to be Biblical Lachish, but is now commonly identified with Eglon. Petrie noticed strata exposed by waterflow adjacent to the site, and popularized details of pottery groups excavated therefrom. This marked the introduction of scientific stratigraphy to Palestinian archaeology.
1891-92	Tell el-Hesi	Eglon	Frederick J. Bliss Frederick Jones Bliss Frederick Jones Bliss was an United States archaeologist. After training under Flinders Petrie in Egypt, Bliss became involved with the Palestine Exploration Fund working in the field of Biblical archaeology at the site of Tell el-Hesi between 1894 and 1897, while cuncurrently leading an expedition that dug in Jerusalem....	N/a
1898-1900	Tell es-Safi	Gath?	Frederick J. Bliss Frederick Jones Bliss Frederick Jones Bliss was an United States archaeologist. After training under Flinders Petrie in Egypt, Bliss became involved with the Palestine Exploration Fund working in the field of Biblical archaeology at the site of Tell el-Hesi between 1894 and 1897, while cuncurrently leading an expedition that dug in Jerusalem.... and R.A.S. Macalister Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister was an Ireland archaeologist.Macalister was born in Dublin, Ireland and studied at Cambridge University. Although his earliest interest was in the archaeology of Ireland, he soon developed a strong interest in biblical archaeology....	N/a
1898-1900	Tell Zakariya	Azekah Azekah File:Tel azeka.JPGAzekah was a biblical town in the Shephelah guarding the upper reaches of the Valley of Elah. It has been identified with Khirbet Qeiyafa, about 26 km northwest of Hebron.... ?	Frederick J. Bliss Frederick Jones Bliss Frederick Jones Bliss was an United States archaeologist. After training under Flinders Petrie in Egypt, Bliss became involved with the Palestine Exploration Fund working in the field of Biblical archaeology at the site of Tell el-Hesi between 1894 and 1897, while cuncurrently leading an expedition that dug in Jerusalem.... and R.A.S. Macalister Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister was an Ireland archaeologist.Macalister was born in Dublin, Ireland and studied at Cambridge University. Although his earliest interest was in the archaeology of Ireland, he soon developed a strong interest in biblical archaeology....	N/a
1898-1900	Tell ej-Judeideh	Moresheth-Gath or Libnah Libnah Libnah, was a town in the Kingdom of Judah. The town of Libnah revolted during the reign of King Jehoram of Judah, according to Books of Chronicles , because he "had abandoned [the] God of his fathers."... ?	Frederick J. Bliss Frederick Jones Bliss Frederick Jones Bliss was an United States archaeologist. After training under Flinders Petrie in Egypt, Bliss became involved with the Palestine Exploration Fund working in the field of Biblical archaeology at the site of Tell el-Hesi between 1894 and 1897, while cuncurrently leading an expedition that dug in Jerusalem.... and R.A.S. Macalister Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister was an Ireland archaeologist.Macalister was born in Dublin, Ireland and studied at Cambridge University. Although his earliest interest was in the archaeology of Ireland, he soon developed a strong interest in biblical archaeology....	N/a
1898-1900	Tell Sandahannah	Mareshah?	Frederick J. Bliss Frederick Jones Bliss Frederick Jones Bliss was an United States archaeologist. After training under Flinders Petrie in Egypt, Bliss became involved with the Palestine Exploration Fund working in the field of Biblical archaeology at the site of Tell el-Hesi between 1894 and 1897, while cuncurrently leading an expedition that dug in Jerusalem.... and R.A.S. Macalister Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister was an Ireland archaeologist.Macalister was born in Dublin, Ireland and studied at Cambridge University. Although his earliest interest was in the archaeology of Ireland, he soon developed a strong interest in biblical archaeology....	N/a
1902–3, 1907–9	Gezer	Gezer	R.A.S. Macalister Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister was an Ireland archaeologist.Macalister was born in Dublin, Ireland and studied at Cambridge University. Although his earliest interest was in the archaeology of Ireland, he soon developed a strong interest in biblical archaeology....	The Gezer calendar Gezer calendar The Gezer calendar is a tablet of soft limestone inscribed in a Paleo-Hebrew alphabet script. It is one of the oldest known examples of Hebrew language writing, dating to the 10th century BCE.... was discovered on the surface during this excavation.
1902–4	Taanach	Taanach	Ernest Sellin	N/a
1903–5	Megiddo	Megiddo Megiddo Megiddo is a Hebrew place name that can refer to:* Tel Megiddo, site of an ancient city in northern Israel's Jezreel valley** Megiddo, Israel, a kibbutz in Israel...	Gottlieb Schumacher Gottlieb Schumacher Gottlieb Schumacher was a Germany-UnitedStates civil engineer, architecture, and archaeology, who was a important figure in the early archaeological explorations of Palestine....	N/a
1905–7	Galilee	Galilee Galilee Galilee , is a large region in northern Israel which overlaps with much of the administrative North District of the country. Traditionally divided into Upper Galilee , Lower Galilee , and Western Galilee , extending from Dan to the north, at the base of Mount Hermon, along Mount Lebanon to the ridges of Mount Carmel and Mount Gilboa t...	Herman Kohl, Ernest Sellin, and Carl Watzinger	A survey of ancient synagogue Synagogue A synagogue is a Jewish house of prayer.Synagogues usually have a large hall for prayer , smaller rooms for study and sometimes a social hall and offices.... s
1907–9	Shechem	Shechem Shechem Shechem was Canaanite city mentioned in the Amarna letters, and later became an Israelite city in the tribe of Manasseh. It was the first capital of the Kingdom of Israel....	Ernest Sellin and Carl Watzinger	N/a
1908, 1910–1	Samaria	Samaria Samaria Samaria, or the Shomron is a term used for the mountainous region in northern Israel roughly corresponding to the northern part of the West Bank....	David G. Lyon, Clarence S. Fisher, and George A. Reisner	N/a
1911–3	Beth Shemesh	Beth Shemesh	Duncan Mackenzie Duncan Mackenzie Duncan Mackenzie was a Scotland archaeologist, whose work focused on one of the more spectacular 20th century archaeology finds, Crete's palace of Knossos, the supposed centre of Minoan civilisation....	N/a
1921–3, 1925–8, 1930–3 Clarence S. Fisher, Alan Rowe, and Gerald M. Fitzgerald	Beth Shean	Beth Shean	Clarence S. Fisher, Alan Rowe, and Gerald M. Fitzgerald	N/a
1922–3	Tell el-Ful	Gibeah Gibeah Gibeah ? could be a variation of the Hebrew word meaning ?hill,? other names include Gibeah of Benjamin and Gibeah of Saul. The site is believed to be identical to Tell el-Ful meaning ?mound of horse beans? in Arabic, a hill next to the modern Jerusalem neighbourhood of Pisgat Ze'ev.... ?	William F. Albright	N/a
1925–39	Megiddo Megiddo Megiddo is a Hebrew place name that can refer to:* Tel Megiddo, site of an ancient city in northern Israel's Jezreel valley** Megiddo, Israel, a kibbutz in Israel...	Megiddo Megiddo Megiddo is a Hebrew place name that can refer to:* Tel Megiddo, site of an ancient city in northern Israel's Jezreel valley** Megiddo, Israel, a kibbutz in Israel...	Clarence S. Fisher, P.L.O. Guy, and Gordon Loud	N/a
1926, 1928, 1930, 1932	Tell Beit Mirsim	Eglon Eglon Eglon may refer to:Eglon, Canaana Biblical cityEglon , a Biblical kingEglon, West Virginia, a community in the U.S. state of West Virginia... or Debir Debir A Bible name, Debir* may refer to:* The most inner and sacred part of Solomon's Temple, most commonly known as "Sanctum Sanctorum"; see Most Holy Place.... –Kirjath Sepher?	William F. Albright	N/a
1926–7, 1929, 1932, 1935 excavated	Mizpah Mizpah Mizpah or Miz'peh may refer to:* one of several places in ancient Israel: Mizpah in Benjamin, a city near Jerusalem Mizpah in Gilead , the place where Laban overtook Jacob on his return to Canaan...	Mizpah Mizpah Mizpah or Miz'peh may refer to:* one of several places in ancient Israel: Mizpah in Benjamin, a city near Jerusalem Mizpah in Gilead , the place where Laban overtook Jacob on his return to Canaan...	William F. Bade	N/a
1928–33	Beth Shemesh	Beth Shemesh	Elihu Grant Elihu Grant Elihu Grant was an United States scholar and writer on Palestine.Grant was ordained Methodist Minister in 1900, and between 1901 and 1904 he was superintendent of the Ramallah Friends Schoolss in Ramallah and Jerusalem....	N/a
1930–6 excavated	Jericho Jericho Jericho is a city located near the Jordan River in the West Bank of the Palestinian territories. It is the capital of the Jericho Governorate, and has a population of over 20,000 Arabs....	Jericho Jericho Jericho is a city located near the Jordan River in the West Bank of the Palestinian territories. It is the capital of the Jericho Governorate, and has a population of over 20,000 Arabs....	John Garstang John Garstang John Garstang was a United Kingdom archaeologist of the ancient Near East, especially Anatolia and the southern Levant.John Garstang was born to Dr....	N/a
1931–3, 1935 excavated	Samaria Samaria Samaria, or the Shomron is a term used for the mountainous region in northern Israel roughly corresponding to the northern part of the West Bank....	Samaria Samaria Samaria, or the Shomron is a term used for the mountainous region in northern Israel roughly corresponding to the northern part of the West Bank....	John W. Crowfoot	N/a
1932–38	Lachish Lachish Lachish was a town located in the Shephelah, or maritime plain of Philistia . This town was first mentioned in the Amarna letters as Lakisha-Laki?a ....	Lachish Lachish Lachish was a town located in the Shephelah, or maritime plain of Philistia . This town was first mentioned in the Amarna letters as Lakisha-Laki?a ....	James L. Starkey	The excavation was terminated when Starkey was killed by bandits near Hebron Hebron Hebron is the largest city in the West Bank, located in the south, 30 kilometers south of Jerusalem. It is home to some 166,000 Palestinians, and over 500 Israelis.... while on his way to the opening ceremonies of the Palestine Archaeological Museum Rockefeller Museum The Rockefeller Museum, formerly the Palestine Archaeological Museum, is an archaeology museum located in East Jerusalem that houses a large collection of artifacts unearthed in the excavations conducted in Palestine beginning in the late 19th century....
1936–40	Beit She'arim Beit She'arim National Park Beit She'arim , also known as Beth She'arim, is the archeological site of a Jewish town and necropolis. The site is part of the Beit She'arim National Park, which borders the town of Kiryat Tiv'on on the northeast and is located close to the modern moshav of Beit She'arim....	Beit She'arim Beit She'arim National Park Beit She'arim , also known as Beth She'arim, is the archeological site of a Jewish town and necropolis. The site is part of the Beit She'arim National Park, which borders the town of Kiryat Tiv'on on the northeast and is located close to the modern moshav of Beit She'arim....	Benjamin Mazar Benjamin Mazar Benjamin Mazar was a pioneering Israelis archaeologist who shared the national passion for the archaeology of Israel that also attracts considerable international interest due to the region's Bible links....	N/a
1948–50, 1952–5 excavated	Jaffa Jaffa File:Jaffa StPeter church.jpgJaffa is an ancient port city believed to be one of the oldest in the world.Jaffa is located south of Tel Aviv, Israel on the Mediterranean Sea....	N/a	Jacob Kaplan	N/a
1954, 1959–62 excavated	Ramat Rahel Ramat Rachel Ramat Rachel is a kibbutz located south of Jerusalem in Israel, as an enclave within Jerusalem's municipal boundaries. Overlooking Bethlehem and Rachel's Tomb and situated adjacent to the Green Line , it falls under the jurisdiction of Mateh Yehuda Regional Council....	N/a	Yohanan Aharoni Yohanan Aharoni Yohanan Aharoni was born in Germany, June 7, 1919, and immigrated to Palestine in 1933. He became the professor of archeology, chairman of the Department of Archeology and the Near East Studies and chairman of the Institute of Archeology at the University of Tel-Aviv....	N/a
1955–8, 1968	Hazor Hazor Hazor is the name of several places in the biblical and modern Israel:Biblical locations:* Tel Hazor, site of an ancient fortified city in the Upper Galilee, among the most important Caananite towns, and the largest ancient ruin in modern Israel and UNESCO World Heritage Site....	Hazor Hazor Hazor is the name of several places in the biblical and modern Israel:Biblical locations:* Tel Hazor, site of an ancient fortified city in the Upper Galilee, among the most important Caananite towns, and the largest ancient ruin in modern Israel and UNESCO World Heritage Site....	Yigael Yadin Yigael Yadin Yigael Yadin was an Israeli archeology, politician, and the second Ramatkal of the Israel Defense Forces....	N/a
1956–7, 1959–60, 1962 excavated	Gibeon Gibeon Gibeon was a Canaanite city north of Jerusalem that was conquered by Joshua. Today, the Palestinian village of Jib is the modern representation of ancient Gibeon....	Gibeon Gibeon Gibeon was a Canaanite city north of Jerusalem that was conquered by Joshua. Today, the Palestinian village of Jib is the modern representation of ancient Gibeon....	James B. Pritchard James B. Pritchard James Bennett Pritchard was an American archeologist whose work explicated the interrelationships of the religions of ancient Israel, Canaan, History of Ancient Egypt, Assyria, and Babylon....	N/a
1961–7 excavated )	Jerusalem Jerusalem Jerusalem is the capital of Israel and its List of Israeli cities in both population and area, with a population of 747,600 residents over an area of if Positions on Jerusalem East Jerusalem is included.... (City of David)	N/a	Kathleen Kenyon Kathleen Kenyon Dame Kathleen Mary Kenyon , was a leading archaeologist of Neolithic culture in the Fertile Crescent. She is best known for her excavations in Jericho in 1952-1958....	N/a
1962–7	Arad Tel Arad Tel Arad or 'old' Arad is located west of the Dead Sea, about 10km west of modern Arad, Israel in an area surrounded by mountain ridges which is known as the Arad Becken....	Arad Tel Arad Tel Arad or 'old' Arad is located west of the Dead Sea, about 10km west of modern Arad, Israel in an area surrounded by mountain ridges which is known as the Arad Becken....	Yohanan Aharoni Yohanan Aharoni Yohanan Aharoni was born in Germany, June 7, 1919, and immigrated to Palestine in 1933. He became the professor of archeology, chairman of the Department of Archeology and the Near East Studies and chairman of the Institute of Archeology at the University of Tel-Aviv.... and Ruth Amiran	N/a
1962–3, 1965–72	Ashdod Ashdod Ashdod , is the List of Israeli cities in Israel, located in the South District of the country, on the Mediterranean Sea Israeli Coastal Plain, with a population of 207,000....	Ashdod Ashdod Ashdod , is the List of Israeli cities in Israel, located in the South District of the country, on the Mediterranean Sea Israeli Coastal Plain, with a population of 207,000....	Moshe Dothan	N/a
1963–5 excavated	Masada Masada Masada is the name for a site of ancient palaces and fortifications in the South District of Israel on top of an isolated rock plateau, or large mesa, on the eastern edge of the Judean Desert overlooking the Dead Sea....	N/a	Yigael Yadin Yigael Yadin Yigael Yadin was an Israeli archeology, politician, and the second Ramatkal of the Israel Defense Forces....	N/a
1964–74	Gezer Gezer Gezer was a town in ancient History of ancient Israel and Judah. Scholars believe that Gezer is Tel Gezer , a site around midway on the route between Jerusalem and Tel Aviv....	Gezer Gezer Gezer was a town in ancient History of ancient Israel and Judah. Scholars believe that Gezer is Tel Gezer , a site around midway on the route between Jerusalem and Tel Aviv....	G. Ernest Wright, William G. Dever William G. Dever William G. Dever is an United States archaeologist, specialising in the History of the Levant in Biblical times, who was Professor of Near Eastern Archaeology and Anthropology at the University of Arizona in Tucson, Arizona, from 1975 to 2002.... , and Joe Seger	N/a
1968–78	Jerusalem Jerusalem Jerusalem is the capital of Israel and its List of Israeli cities in both population and area, with a population of 747,600 residents over an area of if Positions on Jerusalem East Jerusalem is included.... (southwest corner of the Temple Mount Temple Mount The Temple Mount , also known as Mount Moriah and by Muslims as the Noble Sanctuary , is a religious site in the Old City of Jerusalem of Jerusalem.... )	Temple Mount Temple Mount The Temple Mount , also known as Mount Moriah and by Muslims as the Noble Sanctuary , is a religious site in the Old City of Jerusalem of Jerusalem....	Benjamin Mazar Benjamin Mazar Benjamin Mazar was a pioneering Israelis archaeologist who shared the national passion for the archaeology of Israel that also attracts considerable international interest due to the region's Bible links....	N/a
1969–76	Beersheba Beersheba Beersheba is the largest city in the Negev desert of southern Israel. Often referred to as the "Capital of the Negev", it is the seventh-largest city in Israel with a population of 186,100....	Beersheba Beersheba Beersheba is the largest city in the Negev desert of southern Israel. Often referred to as the "Capital of the Negev", it is the seventh-largest city in Israel with a population of 186,100....	Yohanan Aharoni Yohanan Aharoni Yohanan Aharoni was born in Germany, June 7, 1919, and immigrated to Palestine in 1933. He became the professor of archeology, chairman of the Department of Archeology and the Near East Studies and chairman of the Institute of Archeology at the University of Tel-Aviv.... and Ze'ev Herzog Ze'ev Herzog Ze?ev Herzog is an Israelis archeologist, professor of archaeology at The Department of Archaeology and Ancient Near Eastern Cultures at Tel Aviv University....	N/a
1969–82	Jerusalem Jerusalem Jerusalem is the capital of Israel and its List of Israeli cities in both population and area, with a population of 747,600 residents over an area of if Positions on Jerusalem East Jerusalem is included.... (Jewish Quarter Jewish Quarter The Jewish Quarter is one of the four traditional quarters of the Old City of Jerusalem. The 45,000 square meter area lies in the southeastern sector of the walled city, and stretches from the Gates in Jerusalem's Old City Walls in the south, along the Armenian Quarter on the west, up to the Cardo in the north and extends to the Western W... )	Jerusalem Jerusalem Jerusalem is the capital of Israel and its List of Israeli cities in both population and area, with a population of 747,600 residents over an area of if Positions on Jerusalem East Jerusalem is included....	Nahman Avigad Nahman Avigad Dr. Nahman Avigad , born in Zawalow, Galicia , was an Israeli archaeologist.He studied architecture in what is now the town of Brno, Czech Republic....	N/a
1973–94	Lachish Lachish Lachish was a town located in the Shephelah, or maritime plain of Philistia . This town was first mentioned in the Amarna letters as Lakisha-Laki?a ....	Lachish Lachish Lachish was a town located in the Shephelah, or maritime plain of Philistia . This town was first mentioned in the Amarna letters as Lakisha-Laki?a ....	David Ussishkin David Ussishkin David Ussishkin is an Israeli archaeologist. Now retired as Professor of Archaeology at Tel Aviv University, Ussishkin has directed and co-directed important excavations at a variety of sites, including Lachish, Jezreel and Megiddo ....	N/a
1975–82	Aroer Aroer Aroer is a town on the north bank of the River Arnon to the east of the Dead Sea, in present-day Jordan.The town was an ancient Moabite settlement, and is mentioned in the Bible....	Aroer Aroer Aroer is a town on the north bank of the River Arnon to the east of the Dead Sea, in present-day Jordan.The town was an ancient Moabite settlement, and is mentioned in the Bible....	Avraham Biran Avraham Biran Avraham Biran was an Israeli archaeologist, most well known for heading excavations at Tel Dan in northern Israel for more than 30 years. Biran received his Ph.D....	N/a
1977–9, 1981–9	Timnah Timnah Biblical Timnah is identified with the modern archeological site of Tel Batash, in the Sorek Valley of Israel, near Kibbutz Tal Shahar.The site was first settled in the Middle Bronze Age by creating an earthen rampart that enclosed the 10 acre / 40 hectare site....	Timnah Timnah Biblical Timnah is identified with the modern archeological site of Tel Batash, in the Sorek Valley of Israel, near Kibbutz Tal Shahar.The site was first settled in the Middle Bronze Age by creating an earthen rampart that enclosed the 10 acre / 40 hectare site....	Amihai Mazar Amihai Mazar Amihai "Ami" Mazar is an Israeli archaeology. Born in Haifa, Israel , he is currently Professor at the Institute of Archaeology of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, holding the Eleazer Sukenik Chair in the Archaeology of Israel.... and George L. Kelm George L. Kelm George L. Kelm is Professor Emeritus of Archaeology and Biblical Backgrounds at Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, Fort Worth, Texas. Along with Israeli archaeologist Amihai Mazar, Kelm excavated the site of biblical Timnah / Tel Batash in the Sorek Valley of Israel....	N/a
1978–85	Jerusalem Jerusalem Jerusalem is the capital of Israel and its List of Israeli cities in both population and area, with a population of 747,600 residents over an area of if Positions on Jerusalem East Jerusalem is included.... (City of David)	Jerusalem Jerusalem Jerusalem is the capital of Israel and its List of Israeli cities in both population and area, with a population of 747,600 residents over an area of if Positions on Jerusalem East Jerusalem is included....	Yigal Shiloh	N/a
1979–80	Ketef Hinnom Ketef Hinnom Ketef Hinnom is an archaeological site near Jerusalem. The site consists of a series of rock-hewn burial chambers based on natural caverns. In 1979 two tiny silver scrolls, inscribed with portions of the well-known apotropaic Priestly Blessing of the Book of Numbers and apparently once used as amulets, were found in one of a burial chambers....	N/a	Gabriel Barkay Gabriel Barkay Gabriel Barkay is a professor of Biblical archaeology at Bar Ilan University, The Institute of Holy Land Studies , and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem....	N/a
1979, 1981–2, 1984–7, 1990–1, 1993–2000	Khirbet Nisya	N/a	David Livingston David Livingston David Livingston may refer to:* David Livingstone , Scottish Presbyterian pioneer medical missionary* David Livingston , American television producer and director...	N/a
1981–2, 1984–8, 1990, 1992–6	Ekron Ekron The city of Ekron was one of the five cities of the famed Philistine 'pentapolis,' located in southwestern Canaan.During the Iron Age, Ekron was a border city on the frontier contested between Philistia and the kingdom of Judah....	Ekron Ekron The city of Ekron was one of the five cities of the famed Philistine 'pentapolis,' located in southwestern Canaan.During the Iron Age, Ekron was a border city on the frontier contested between Philistia and the kingdom of Judah....	Trude Dothan and Seymour Gitin	N/a
1989–96	Tel Beit-Shean	N/a	Amihai Mazar Amihai Mazar Amihai "Ami" Mazar is an Israeli archaeology. Born in Haifa, Israel , he is currently Professor at the Institute of Archaeology of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, holding the Eleazer Sukenik Chair in the Archaeology of Israel....	N/a
1994–2008	Megiddo Megiddo Megiddo is a Hebrew place name that can refer to:* Tel Megiddo, site of an ancient city in northern Israel's Jezreel valley** Megiddo, Israel, a kibbutz in Israel...	Megiddo Megiddo Megiddo is a Hebrew place name that can refer to:* Tel Megiddo, site of an ancient city in northern Israel's Jezreel valley** Megiddo, Israel, a kibbutz in Israel...	Israel Finkelstein Israel Finkelstein Israel Finkelstein is an Israelis Archaeology and Academics. He is currently the Jacob M. Alkow Professor of the Archaeology of Israel in the Bronze Age and Iron Ages at Tel Aviv University and is also the co-director of excavations at Tel Megiddo in northern Israel.... and David Ussishkin David Ussishkin David Ussishkin is an Israeli archaeologist. Now retired as Professor of Archaeology at Tel Aviv University, Ussishkin has directed and co-directed important excavations at a variety of sites, including Lachish, Jezreel and Megiddo ....	N/a
1996–2002, 2004–2008	Tell es-Safi Tell es-Safi Gat or Gath 'Gath of the Philistines' was one of the five Philistine city-states, established in northwestern Philistia. According to the Bible, the king of the city was Achish, in the times of both David and Solomon.... (identified as Biblical of the Philistines	Gath	Aren Maeir Aren Maeir Aren Maeir is a professor at Bar Ilan University and director of the Tell es-Safi/Gath Archaeological Project . Born in 1958 in Rochester, New York, USA, he moved to Israel in 1969 and has lived there since....	N/a
1997–	Tel Rehov	N/a	Amihai Mazar Amihai Mazar Amihai "Ami" Mazar is an Israeli archaeology. Born in Haifa, Israel , he is currently Professor at the Institute of Archaeology of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, holding the Eleazer Sukenik Chair in the Archaeology of Israel....	N/a
1999–2001, 2005	Tel Zayit	Zeitah	Ron Tappy	N/a
2005	Ramat Rahel Ramat Rachel Ramat Rachel is a kibbutz located south of Jerusalem in Israel, as an enclave within Jerusalem's municipal boundaries. Overlooking Bethlehem and Rachel's Tomb and situated adjacent to the Green Line , it falls under the jurisdiction of Mateh Yehuda Regional Council....	N/a	Oded Lipschits	N/a
2005	Nahal Tut Nahal Tut Nahal Tut is an archaeological site excavated along the wadi of the same name in northern Israel's Mount Carmel#Ramot Menashe from February to July of 2005 by Amir Gorzalczany and Gerald Finkielsztejn in preparation for the northward extension of Highway 6 ....	N/a	Amir Gorzalczany and Gerald Finkielsztejn excavated	N/a
2007	Khirbet Qeiyafa Khirbet Qeiyafa Khirbet Qeiyafa , recently proposed as the biblical Sha'arayim, is an archaeological site overlooking the Valley of Elah where, according to the Biblical account, David fought Goliath....	N/a	Yosef Garfinkel Yosef Garfinkel Yosef Garfinkel was born in 1956 in Haifa, Israel. He is a professor of Biblical Archaeology at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and a curator of the museum of Yarmukian Culture at Kibbutz Sha?ar Hagolan.... and Saar Ganor Saar Ganor Saar Ganor is an Israeli archaeologist. He is the co-discoverer, with Yosef Garfinkel, of Khirbet Qeiyafa, thought to be Biblical Azekah. He is inspector for the Israel Antiquities Authority and a lecturer at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem....	N/a

Table II: Artifacts

Item	Date of artifact	Provenance	Description
Foundations stones of Herodian Temple	N/a	Identified during topographic surveys carried out by Charles Warren in the 1860s under the sponsorship of the Palestine Exploration Fund.	N/a
LMLK seals	8th century BC?	Found under controlled conditions at sites throughout Iron Age Palestine.	Seal-impressions bearing the letters LMLK on jar handles, associated with the reign of the Biblical king Hezekiah Hezekiah Hezekiah was the 13th king of independent kingdom of Judah.His reign has been dated from 715 – 687 BC or 716 – 687 BC. Under either of these chronologies, Hezekiah ruled the southern kingdom of Judah during the forced resettlement of the northern kingdom of Israel by Sargon II's Assyrians and the invasion and siege of Jerusale... of Judah.
Water shafts under the City of David	9th century BC?	Discovered during Charles Warren 's survey of Jerusalem in the 1860s.	N/a
Nag Hammadi library Nag Hammadi library The Nag Hammadi library is a collection of Early Christianity Gnosticism Gnostic texts discovered near the Upper_Egypt town of Nag Hammadi in 1945....	N/a	Discovered by peasants near the town of Nag Hammadi Nag Hammâdi Nag Hammadi , is a city in Upper Egypt. Nag Hammadi was known as Chenoboskion in classical antiquity, meaning "geese grazing grounds". It is located on the west bank of the Nile in the Qena Governorate, about 80 kilometres north-west of Luxor.... in Egypt.	A collection of early Christian Early Christianity Early Christianity is commonly defined as the Christianity of the three centuries between the Crucifixion of Jesus and the First Council of Nicaea .... Gnostic Gnosticism Gnosticism refers to diverse, syncretistic religious movements in antiquity consisting of various belief systems generally united in the teaching that humans are divine souls trapped in a Nature created by an imperfect god, the demiurge; this being is frequently identified with the Abrahamic God, and is contrasted with a superior entity, ref... texts Gnostic texts Gnosticism used a number of religious texts that are preserved, in part or whole, in ancient manuscripts or are lost but mentioned critically in Church Fathers writings.... also known as the "Gnostic Gospels Gnostic Gospels The term gnostic gospels refers to gnostic collections of writings about the teachings of Jesus, written around the 2nd century AD. These gospels are not accepted by most mainstream Christians as part of the standard Biblical canon.... ".
Dead Sea Scrolls Dead Sea scrolls The Dead Sea scrolls consist of roughly 900 documents, including texts from the Hebrew Bible, discovered between 1947 and 1956 in eleven caves in and around the Wadi Qumran near the ruins of the ancient settlement of Qumran, on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea....	c.350 BC - 68 AD	Discovered in caves near the Dead Sea between 1947-1956.	The Scrolls comprise some 800 documents in tens of thousands of fragments. Written in Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek, they contain Biblical and apocryphal works, prayers and legal texts and sectarian documents.
Ketef Hinnom Ketef Hinnom Ketef Hinnom is an archaeological site near Jerusalem. The site consists of a series of rock-hewn burial chambers based on natural caverns. In 1979 two tiny silver scrolls, inscribed with portions of the well-known apotropaic Priestly Blessing of the Book of Numbers and apparently once used as amulets, were found in one of a burial chambers.... scrolls	Immediately prior to 586 BC	Found under controlled conditions by Gabriel Barkay Gabriel Barkay Gabriel Barkay is a professor of Biblical archaeology at Bar Ilan University, The Institute of Holy Land Studies , and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.... during the excavation of an ancient burial chamber.	Two small silver scrolls containing texts similar to, although not identical with, the Priestly Blessing Priestly Blessing The Priestly Blessing, , also known in Hebrew as Nesiat Kapayim, , is a Judaism prayer recited by Kohanim during certain Jewish services.... from the Book of Numbers Book of Numbers The Book of Numbers, , is the fourth book of the Torah, the Tanakh, and the Old Testament. In the Greek language Septuagint it is called Arithmoi, or Numbers.... and parallel verses of Exodus Exodus Exodus is the second book of the Jewish Torah and of the Christian Old Testament. It tells how Moses leads the Israelites out of Egypt and through the wilderness to the Mountain of God Sinai.... (20:6) and Deuteronomy Deuteronomy Deuteronomy is the fifth book of the Hebrew Bible and of the Old Testament. In form it is a set of three sermons delivered by Moses reviewing the previous forty years of wandering in the wilderness; its central element is a detailed law-code by which the Children of Israel are to live in the Promised Land.... (5:10 and 7:9). These are the oldest Biblical fragments yet found.
Gibeon Gibeon Gibeon was a Canaanite city north of Jerusalem that was conquered by Joshua. Today, the Palestinian village of Jib is the modern representation of ancient Gibeon.... pool (at el-Jib)	N/a	N/a	N/a
Hezekiah tunnel Hezekiah tunnel File:Hezekiahs Tunnel.jpgHezekiah's Tunnel, or the Siloam Tunnel is a tunnel that was dug underneath the Ophel in Jerusalem about 701 BC during the reign of Hezekiah.... under Jerusalem Jerusalem Jerusalem is the capital of Israel and its List of Israeli cities in both population and area, with a population of 747,600 residents over an area of if Positions on Jerusalem East Jerusalem is included....	N/a	N/a	N/a
Walls of Jericho Walls of Jericho Walls of Jericho is a metalcore band formed in 1998 from Detroit, Michigan....	1550 BC (destruction of)	N/a	Excavated by John Garstang John Garstang John Garstang was a United Kingdom archaeologist of the ancient Near East, especially Anatolia and the southern Levant.John Garstang was born to Dr.... in the 1930s and dated to around 1400 BC; re-excavated by Kathleen Kenyon Kathleen Kenyon Dame Kathleen Mary Kenyon , was a leading archaeologist of Neolithic culture in the Fertile Crescent. She is best known for her excavations in Jericho in 1952-1958.... in the 1950s and redated to around 1550 BC. Bryant Wood's 1990 proposed reversion of Kenyon's dates to Garstang has not been supported by subsequent studies.
Siege ramp of Sennacherib Sennacherib Sennacherib Rise to power As a crown prince, Sennacherib was placed in charge of the empire while his father Sargon II was on campaign.... at Lachish	N/a	N/a	N/a
Pool of Siloam Pool of Siloam Pool of Siloam is a rock-cut pool on the southern slope of the City of David now outside the walls of the Old City to the southeast. The pool was fed by the waters of the Gihon Spring, which were carried there by two aqueducts - the Middle Bronze Age Channel , and Hezekiah's Tunnel ...	N/a	N/a	N/a
Western/Wailing wall	1st century BC	N/a	The wall was originally a retaining wall for the Herodian temple complex.
Shechem temple	Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age	N/a	Cf. the "House of (the god) Baalberith" in Judges Book of Judges The Book of Judges is a Books of the Bible originally written in Hebrew language. It appears in the Tanakh and in the Christian Old Testament. Its title refers to its contents; it contains the history of Biblical judges , who helped rule and guide the ancient Israelites, and of their times.... 9.
19 tumuli Tumulus A tumulus is a mound of Soil and Rock s raised over a Grave or graves. Tumuli are also known as barrows, burial mounds, H?gelgrab or kurgans, and can be found throughout much of the world.... located west of Jerusalem Jerusalem Jerusalem is the capital of Israel and its List of Israeli cities in both population and area, with a population of 747,600 residents over an area of if Positions on Jerusalem East Jerusalem is included....	Iron Age	N/a	The 19 tumuli dating to the Judean monarchy possibly represent sites of memorial ceremonies for the kings as mentioned in 2 Chronicles 16:14, 21:19, 32:33, and the book of Jeremiah Book of Jeremiah The Book of Jeremiah, or Jeremiah , is part of the Hebrew Bible, Judaism's Tanakh, and later became a part of Christianity's Old Testament.... 34:5
Boundary markers for Gezer Gezer Gezer was a town in ancient History of ancient Israel and Judah. Scholars believe that Gezer is Tel Gezer , a site around midway on the route between Jerusalem and Tel Aviv.... walls and city gate.	N/a	N/a	1st century BC Hebrew inscriptions found engraved on rocks several hundred meters from the tel Tell Tell, tel , meaning "hill" or "mound", is a type of archaeology site in the form of an earthen mound that results from the accumulation and subsequent erosion of material deposited by long human occupation.... read "boundary of Gezer."
Nehemiah Nehemiah Nehemiah or Nechemya is a major figure in the Babylonian captivity history of the Jews as recorded in the Bible, and is believed to be the primary author of the Book of Nehemiah.... 's wall.	N/a	N/a	N/a
Arad ostraca	N/a	N/a	A collection of ostraca (inscribed pottery fragments) from Arad Arad The term Arad may refer to:* A Persian male name.Places in Romania* Arad, Romania, the main city of Arad County** The 13 Martyrs of Arad, 19th century generals who were executed in Arad, Romania... .
Signet bullae (rings engraved with the owner's name, or impressions left by these rings)	9th-4th centuries BC	Found in both controlled and non-controlled conditions	The bullae feature many names known from Biblical texts.
Balaam Balaam Balaam is a diviner in the Torah, his story occurring towards the end of the Book of Numbers. The etymology of his name is uncertain, and discussed below.... texts	N/a	Found during controlled excavations at Deir Alla Deir Alla Deir Alla, Jordan, was the site of a sanctuary and metal-working centre, ringed by smelting furnaces built against the exterior of the city walls, whose successive rebuildings, dated by ceramics from the Late Bronze Age, sixteenth century BCE, to the fifth century BCE, accumulated as a tell based on a low natural hill.... , Jordan.	The texts (painted in ink on a plastered wall and painstakingly reconstructed) describe the visions of seer named Balaam (cf. Numbers Book of Numbers The Book of Numbers, , is the fourth book of the Torah, the Tanakh, and the Old Testament. In the Greek language Septuagint it is called Arithmoi, or Numbers.... 22–24)
Black Obelisk Black Obelisk The "Black Obelisk" of Shalmaneser III is a black limestone Neo-Assyrian bas-relief sculpture from Nimrud , in northern Iraq. It is the most complete Assyrian obelisk yet discovered, and is historically significant because it displays the earliest ancient depiction of an Israelite.... of Shalmaneser III Shalmaneser III Shalmaneser III was king of Assyria , and son of the previous ruler, Ashurnasirpal II.His long reign was a constant series of campaigns against the eastern tribes, the Babylonians, the nations of Mesopotamia and Syria, as well as Kizzuwadna and Urartu....	N/a	N/a	The obelisk depicts Jehu Jehu Jehu was king of Kingdom of Israel, the son of Jehoshaphat , and grandson of Nimshi. William F. Albright has dated his reign to 842 BC-815 BC, while E.... , son of Omri Omri Omri was king of kingdom of Israel and father of Ahab. William F. Albright has dated his reign to 876 BC – 869 BC, while E. R. Thiele offers the dates of 888 BC to 880 BC for his rivalry with Tibni and 880 BC – 874 BC for his sole reign.... , king of Israel, and also mentions Hazael Hazael Hazael was a court official and later an Aramean Monarch who appeared in the Bible. He was first referred to by name in Books of Kings 19 when God told the prophet Elijah to anoint him king over Aram.... of Aram/Damascus/Syria (cf. 2 Kings Books of Kings The Books of Kings are a part of Judaism's Tanakh, the Hebrew Bible. They were originally written in Hebrew language and were later included by Christianity as part of the Old Testament.... 8–10)
Caiaphas Caiaphas Yosef Bar Kayafa , also known simply as Caiaphas in the New Testament, was the Roman Empire-appointed Judaism List of High Priests of Israel between AD 18 and 37.... (Qafa) family ossuaries	N/a	N/a	N/a
Ebla Ebla Ebla was an ancient city about southwest of Aleppo. It was an important city-state in two periods, first in the late 3rd millennium BC, then again between 1800 BC and 1650 BC.... tablets	4th millenium BC	N/a	The tablets are the archives of a small coastal kingdom or city-state in what is now Syria.
Ekron Ekron The city of Ekron was one of the five cities of the famed Philistine 'pentapolis,' located in southwestern Canaan.During the Iron Age, Ekron was a border city on the frontier contested between Philistia and the kingdom of Judah.... inscription	N/a	N/a	N/a
"Goliath" ostracon	N/a	Discovered under controlled conditions during excavations by A. Maeir at Tell es-Safi Tell es-Safi Gat or Gath 'Gath of the Philistines' was one of the five Philistine city-states, established in northwestern Philistia. According to the Bible, the king of the city was Achish, in the times of both David and Solomon.... (biblical Gath)	The ostracon (pottery fragment) is incised with nine letters representing two names (???? and ???) etymologically related to Goliath.
Herod Herod the Great Herod , also known as Herod I or Herod the Great , was a Roman Empire client state of Israel. Herod is known for his colossal building projects in Jerusalem and other parts of the ancient world, including the rebuilding of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, sometimes referred to as Herod's Temple.... 's tomb at Herodium Herodium Herodium or Herodion is a hill shaped like a truncated cone , located in the West Bank, southeast of Bethlehem and under control of Israel, built as a fortress palace by King Herod the Great....	N/a	N/a	N/a
Tel Dan Stele Tel Dan Stele The Tel Dan Stele is a black basalt stele erected by an Aramaean king in northernmost Israel containing an Aramaic inscription to commemorate his victory over the ancient Hebrews....	N/a	Discovered as a surface find during a controlled excavation at Dan, a city marking the northern boundary of the ancient kingdom of Israel.	The stele contains an inscription by an Aramean king describing his victory over two other kings, one of them the king of Israel, the other a king described as being of the "House of David". This represents the earliest known instance of this phrase from an archaeological context.
Izbet Sartah ostracon	1200-1000 BC	Found in the silo of an unfortified village (possibly Biblical Eben-Ezer Eben-Ezer Eben-Ezer , is the name of a location that is mentioned by the Books of Samuel as the scene of battles between the Israelites and Philistines. It is specified as having been less than a day's journey by foot from Shiloh , near Aphek , in the neighbourhood of Mizpah in Benjamin, near the western entrance of the pass of Beth-horon.... , 2 miles east of Philistine Aphek at Antipatris Antipatris Antipatris, one of two places known as Tel Afek, was a city built by Herod the Great, and named in honour of his father, Antipater the Idumaean.... ) occupied from 1200–1000 BC	5 incised lines of 80–83 letters (readings of epigraphers vary), the last line being an abecedary Abecedarium An abecedarium is an inscription consisting of the letters of the alphabet, almost always listed in order. Typically, abecedaria are practice exercises.... .
Jehoiachin's Jeconiah Jeconiah , also known as Jehoiachin , was a king of Judah. He was the son of Jehoiakim with Nehushta, the daughter of List of minor Biblical figures of Jerusalem and was a contemporary of the prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel.... Rations Tablets	6th century BC	Excavated from Babylon during 1899–1917 by Robert Koldewey Robert Koldewey Robert Johann Koldewey was a Germany architecture and archaeology, famous for his discovery of the ancient city of Babylon in modern day Iraq. He was born in Blankenburg am Harz in Germany, the duchy of Brunswick, and died in Berlin at the age of 70.... , stored in a barrel-vaulted underground building consisting of rows of rooms near the Ishtar Gate	The tablets describe the rations set aside for a royal captive identified with Jehoiachin, king of Judah (Cf. 2 Kings 24:12,15–6; 25:27–30; 2 Chronicles 36:9–10; Jeremiah 22:24–6; 29:2; 52:31–4; Ezekiel 17:12). The texts are: Babylon 28122: "...t[o] Ia-'-u-kin, king..." Babylon 28178: "10 (sila of oil) to ...Ia-'-kin, king of Ia[...] 2 1/2 sila to [...so]ns of the king of Ia-a-hu-du" Babylon 28186: "10 (sila) to Ia-ku-u-ki-nu, the son of the king of Ia-ku-du, 2 1/2 sila for the 5 sons of the king of Ia-ku-du"
Lachish ostraca	Late 7th century BC	N/a	The ostraca (inscribed pottery fragments) describe conditions in Judah shortly before the first Babylonian invasion. Letter #3 mentions a warning from the prophet; letter #4 names Lachish Lachish Lachish was a town located in the Shephelah, or maritime plain of Philistia . This town was first mentioned in the Amarna letters as Lakisha-Laki?a .... and Azekah Azekah File:Tel azeka.JPGAzekah was a biblical town in the Shephelah guarding the upper reaches of the Valley of Elah. It has been identified with Khirbet Qeiyafa, about 26 km northwest of Hebron.... as among the last places being conquered (cf. Jeremiah Book of Jeremiah The Book of Jeremiah, or Jeremiah , is part of the Hebrew Bible, Judaism's Tanakh, and later became a part of Christianity's Old Testament.... 34:7); letter #6 describes a conspiracy reminiscent of Jeremiah Book of Jeremiah The Book of Jeremiah, or Jeremiah , is part of the Hebrew Bible, Judaism's Tanakh, and later became a part of Christianity's Old Testament.... 38:19 and 39:9 using phraseology nearly identical to Jeremiah 38:4.
Nabonidus cylinder Cylinder of Nabonidus The Nabonidus Cylinder from Sippar is a long text in which king Nabonidus of Babylonia describes how he repaired three temples: the sanctuary of the moon god Sin in Harran, the sanctuary of the warrior goddess Anunitu in Sippar, and the temple of Shamash in Sippar....	N/a	Found in the Temple of Shamash in Sippara	The cylinder names Belshazzar Belshazzar Belshazzar was the king of Babylon, the son of Nebuchadnezzar, the last king of Babylon according to the Book of Daniel. In the Book of Daniel of the Judaism Tanakh or Christianity Old Testament, Belshazzar is the King of Babylon before the advent of the Medes and Persians.... as the son of Nabonidus Nabonidus Nabonidus was the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, reigning from 556-539 BCE.... , the last king of Babylon Babylon Babylon was a city-state of ancient Mesopotamia, sometimes considered an empire, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Governorate, Iraq, about 85 kilometers south of Baghdad....
Nebo-Sarsekim Tablet Nebo-Sarsekim Tablet Nebo-Sarsekim Tablet is a clay Cuneiform script inscription referring to an official at the court of Nebuchadrezzar II, king of Babylon. It may also refer to an official named in the Biblical Book of Jeremiah....	N/a	Sippar Sippar Sippar , was an ancient Sumerian and later Babylonian city on the east bank of the Euphrates, some 60 km north of Babylon....	The tablet mentions a Babylonian official (Nebo-Sarsekim) who may be a identical with Sarsekim, an official mentioned in Jeremiah Book of Jeremiah The Book of Jeremiah, or Jeremiah , is part of the Hebrew Bible, Judaism's Tanakh, and later became a part of Christianity's Old Testament.... 39:3.
Pim weight Pim weight Pim weight, a polished stone about 5/8 inch diameter, equal to about two-thirds of a Hebrew_people shekel. Many specimens have been found since their initial discovery early in the 20th century, and each one weighs about 7.6 grams compared to 11.5 grams of a shekel.... s	First specimen found by R.A.S. Macalister Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister was an Ireland archaeologist.Macalister was born in Dublin, Ireland and studied at Cambridge University. Although his earliest interest was in the archaeology of Ireland, he soon developed a strong interest in biblical archaeology.... at Gezer Gezer Gezer was a town in ancient History of ancient Israel and Judah. Scholars believe that Gezer is Tel Gezer , a site around midway on the route between Jerusalem and Tel Aviv.... ; many others found since.	N/a	Inscribed with a previously unknown word that facilitated a better translation of 1Samuel Books of Samuel The Books of Samuel are part of the Tanakh and also of the Christianity Old Testament. The work was originally written in Hebrew language, and the Book of Samuel originally formed a single text, as they are often considered today in Hebrew bibles.... 13:21
Lachish Lachish Lachish was a town located in the Shephelah, or maritime plain of Philistia . This town was first mentioned in the Amarna letters as Lakisha-Laki?a .... reliefs	N/a	Found during excavations of Sennacherib Sennacherib Sennacherib Rise to power As a crown prince, Sennacherib was placed in charge of the empire while his father Sargon II was on campaign.... 's palace at Nineveh Nineveh Nineveh , an "exceeding great city", as it is called in the Book of Jonah, lay on the eastern bank of the Tigris in ancient Assyria, across the river from the modern-day major city of Mosul, Iraq....	The reliefs depict the Assyrian conquest of Lachish.
Pontius Pilate Pontius Pilate Pontius Pilate was the Roman_governor#Equestrian_procurator of the Roman Empire Iudaea Province from the year AD 26 until AD 36. He is typically known as the sixth Procurator of Judea, but some sources cite him as the fifth.... inscription	1st century AD	Found in secondary use in a stairway of the Roman Ancient Rome Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC.... theater in Caesarea	The threeline inscription (eroded portion in brackets is speculative but undisputed) reads: TIBERIEUM [PON]TIUS PILATUS [PRAEF]ECTUS IUDA[EA]E "The prefect of Judaea, Pontius Pilate, erected the Tiberium (in honor of Tiberius Caesar)"
Sargon II Sargon II Sargon II was an Neo-Assyrian Empiren king. Sargon II became co-regent with Shalmaneser V in 722 BC, and became the sole ruler of the kingdom of Assyria in 722 BC after the death of Shalmaneser V.... 's Conquest of Samaria Samaria Samaria, or the Shomron is a term used for the mountainous region in northern Israel roughly corresponding to the northern part of the West Bank.... inscription (ANET 284)	N/a	Found at Khorsabad (modern Iran) in 1843 by P.E. Botta Paul-Émile Botta Paul-?mile Botta was French Consul in Mosul since 1842.Born in Torino, Italy, Italy, he excavated in Kuyundshik in 1842 and in Dur-Sharrukin in 1843....	The inscription reads: "I besieged and conquered Samaria, led away as booty 27,290 inhabitants of it. ... The town I rebuilt better than it was before and settled therein people from countries which I myself had conquered." (Cf. 2 Kings 17:23–24).
Tiglath-Pileser III's inscriptions	N/a	Found at Nimrud Nimrud Nimrud is an ancient Assyrian city located south of Nineveh on the river Tigris. In ancient times the city was called Kalhu. The Arabs called the city Nimrud after Nimrod , a legendary hunting hero.... by A.H. Layard	ANET 282: "I received the tribute of ... Jehoahaz Jehoahaz Jehoahaz was the name of several people mentioned in the Tanakh.#Jehoahaz of Israel, king of kingdom of Israel#Jehoahaz of Judah, king of kingdom of Judah... of Judah" (incident not mentioned in the Bible); ANET 283: "As for Menahem Menahem Menahem, from a Hebrew word meaning "the consoler" or "comforter;" was a king over Kingdom of Israel and the son of Gadi, according to the chronology of Kautsch , from 743 BC; according to Schrader, from 745 – 736 BC.... I overwhelmed him ... I placed Hoshea Hoshea See also Hosea, who has the same name in Biblical Hebrew.Hoshea was the last king of Israel and son of Elah. William F. Albright has dated his reign to 732 BC – 721 BC, while Edwin R.... as king over them." (Cf. 2 Kings Books of Kings The Books of Kings are a part of Judaism's Tanakh, the Hebrew Bible. They were originally written in Hebrew language and were later included by Christianity as part of the Old Testament.... 15:19 and 17:3)
Zayit Stone Zayit Stone The Zayit Stone is a 38-pound limestone boulder excavated from Tel Zayit in southwest Israel . It carries what appears to be an inscribed abecedarium and remnants of several other inscriptions ....	10th century BC or earlier.	Discovered during controlled excavations at Tel Zayit by Ron Tappy	Limestone boulder incised with a abecedary Abecedarium An abecedarium is an inscription consisting of the letters of the alphabet, almost always listed in order. Typically, abecedaria are practice exercises.... and remnants of other inscriptions in a South Canaanite development of the basic Phoenician script common to the Palestinian Levant. The wall in which the boulder was found was sealed by a destruction layer dated to the 10th century BC, but the inscription pre-dates the destruction layer and may belong to the early-mid 11th century BC.
Elephantine papyri Elephantine papyri The Elephantine Papyri are a collection of ancient Jewish manuscripts dating from the 5th century BC Common Era. They come from a Jewish community at Elephantine, then called Yeb, the island in the Nile at the border of Nubia, which was probably founded as a military installation in about 650 BCE during Manasseh's reign to assist Pharaoh...	N/a	Upper Egypt. The papyri are not from controlled excavations but their authenticity is undoubted.	The papyri are from a Jewish community living in Egypt during the Persian Empire. They record, among other matters, the relationship of this community with the Temple in Jerusalem.
Kurkh Monolith Kurkh Monolith The Kurkh Monolith is an Assyrian document that contains a description of the Battle of Qarqar at the end. Today it stands in the British Museum but it was originally found at the Kurdish village of Kurkh , near the town of Bismil in the province of Diyarbakir, Turkey....	N/a	Discovered by J.E. Taylor at Diyarbekir, Turkey, in 1861.	This monolith of Shalmaneser III Shalmaneser III Shalmaneser III was king of Assyria , and son of the previous ruler, Ashurnasirpal II.His long reign was a constant series of campaigns against the eastern tribes, the Babylonians, the nations of Mesopotamia and Syria, as well as Kizzuwadna and Urartu.... mentions "2,000 chariots, 10,000 foot soldiers of Ahab Ahab Ahab was Kingdom of Israel and the son and successor of Omri . William F. Albright dated his reign to 869 – 850 BC, while E. R. Thiele offered the dates 874 – 853 BC.... the Israelite"
Merneptah Stele Merneptah Stele The Merneptah Stele ? also known as the Israel Stele or Victory Stele of Merneptah ? is an inscription by the Ancient Egyptian Pharaoh Merneptah , which appears on the reverse side of a granite stela erected by the Pharaoh Amenhotep III....	c.1200 BC (commonly dated to 1207 BC)	Egypt	The stele (monumental stone inscription) of the Egyptian Pharaoh Merneptah Merneptah Merneptah was the fourth ruler of the Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt of Ancient Egypt. He ruled Egypt for almost ten years between late July or early August 1213 to May 2, 1203 BC, according to contemporary historical records.... contains the earliest reference to a people called Israel Israel Israel officially the State of Israel , is a country in the Middle East located on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Lebanon in the north, Syria in the northeast, Jordan in the east, and Egypt on the southwest, and contains geographically diverse features within its relatively small area.... .
Mesha stele Mesha Stele The Mesha Stele is a black basalt stone, bearing an inscription by the 9th century BC Moabite King Mesha, discovered in 1868 at Dhiban now in Jordan....	N/a	Discovered at Dhiban, Jordan Jordan Jordan , officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, is an Arab country in Southwest Asia spanning the southern part of the Syrian Desert down to the Gulf of Aqaba.... (ancient Moab Moab Moab is the historical name for a mountainous strip of land in modern-day Jordan running along the eastern shore of the Dead Sea. In ancient times, it was home to the kingdom of the Moabites, a people often in conflict with their Israelite neighbors to the west.... ), in 1868.	The stele, erected by the Moabite king Meshe, mentions the Israelite king Omri Omri Omri was king of kingdom of Israel and father of Ahab. William F. Albright has dated his reign to 876 BC – 869 BC, while E. R. Thiele offers the dates of 888 BC to 880 BC for his rivalry with Tibni and 880 BC – 874 BC for his sole reign.... and records vessels of YHWH received as tribute.
Siloam inscription Siloam inscription The Siloam inscription or Silwan inscription is a passage of inscribed text originally found in the Hezekiah tunnel . The tunnel was discovered in 1838 by Edward Robinson .... in the Hezekiah tunnel Hezekiah tunnel File:Hezekiahs Tunnel.jpgHezekiah's Tunnel, or the Siloam Tunnel is a tunnel that was dug underneath the Ophel in Jerusalem about 701 BC during the reign of Hezekiah.... , Jerusalem.	N/a	The tunnel was documented by Robinson in 1838,but the inscription (near the centre of tunnel, where the two work-gangs met) was not discovered until 1880. It was removed from Jerusalem Jerusalem Jerusalem is the capital of Israel and its List of Israeli cities in both population and area, with a population of 747,600 residents over an area of if Positions on Jerusalem East Jerusalem is included.... the same year, and is presently in the Archaeological Museum at Istanbul.	The inscription records the completion of the tunnel, intended to bring water into the city.

Biblical archaeology

Overview

Periods in Biblical archaeolgy

Table I: Excavations and surveys

Table II: Artifacts

Footnotes

See also

Further reading