Berenice of Cilicia

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Berenice of Cilicia

Berenice of Cilicia, also known as Julia Berenice and sometimes spelled Bernice (28 AD – ?), was a Jewish client queen

Client state

Client state is one of several terms used to describe the subordination of one state to a more powerful state in international affairs. It is the least specific of these terms and may be treated as a broad category which includes satellite state, puppet state, neo-colony, protectorate, vassal state and tributary state....
of the Roman Empire

Roman Empire

The Roman Empire was the Roman Republic phase of the Ancient Rome, characterised by an autocracy form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
during the second half of the 1st century. Berenice was a member of the Herodian Dynasty

Herodian Dynasty

The Herodian Dynasty was a Jewish dynasty of Idumea descent, who ruled Iudaea Province between 37 BC - AD 92....
, who ruled the Roman province of Judaea

Iudaea Province

Iudaea was a Roman province that extended over the former region of the Hasmonean and Herodian kingdoms of Israel. It was named after the tetrarchy of Judea of which it was an expansion, the latter name deriving from the Kingdom of Judah of the 6th century BCE....
between 39 BC and 92 AD. She was the daughter of King Herod Agrippa I

Agrippa I

Agrippa I also called the Great , King of the Jews, was the grandson of Herod the Great, and son of Aristobulus IV and Berenice . His original name was Marcus Julius Agrippa, and he is the king named Herod in the Acts of the Apostles, in the Bible, "Herod " ....
, and sister of King Herod Agrippa II

Agrippa II

Agrippa II , son of Agrippa I, and like him originally named Marcus Julius Agrippa, was the seventh and last king of the family of Herod the Great, thus last of the Herodians....
.

What little is known about the life and background of Berenice has been handed down to us through the works of Flavius Josephus, a contemporary historian who detailed a history of the Jewish people

Jew

A Jew is a member of the Jewish people, an ethnoreligious group that traces its ancestry to the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East....
and wrote an account of the Jewish Rebellion

First Jewish-Roman War

The first Jewish-Roman War , sometimes called The Great Revolt , was the first of three Jewish-Roman wars by the Jews of Iudaea Province against the Roman Empire ....
of 67.

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Berenice of Cilicia, also known as Julia Berenice and sometimes spelled Bernice (28 AD – ?), was a Jewish client queen

Client state

Roman Empire

Herodian Dynasty

The Herodian Dynasty was a Jewish dynasty of Idumea descent, who ruled Iudaea Province between 37 BC - AD 92....
, who ruled the Roman province of Judaea

Iudaea Province

Agrippa I

Agrippa II

Jew

A Jew is a member of the Jewish people, an ethnoreligious group that traces its ancestry to the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East....
and wrote an account of the Jewish Rebellion

First Jewish-Roman War

The first Jewish-Roman War , sometimes called The Great Revolt , was the first of three Jewish-Roman wars by the Jews of Iudaea Province against the Roman Empire ....
of 67. It is for her tumultuous love life however that Berenice is primarily known today. After a number of failed marriage

Marriage

Marriage is a social, spirituality, or law union of individuals. This union may also be called matrimony, while the ceremony that marks its beginning is usually called a wedding and the married status created is sometimes called wedlock....
s throughout the 40s, she spent much of the remainder of her life at court of her brother Agrippa II, amidst rumors the two were carrying on an incest

Incest

Roman Emperor

The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman Empire during the imperial period . The Romans had no single term for the office: Latin language titles such as imperator , Augustus , Caesar and princeps were all associated with it....
Titus Flavius Vespasianus

Titus

Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Titus , was a Roman Emperor who briefly reigned from 79 until his death in 81. Titus was the second emperor of the Flavian dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 and 96, encompassing the reigns of Titus's father Vespasian , Titus himself and his younger brother Domitian ....
. Her unpopularity among the Romans however compelled Titus to dismiss Berenice upon his accession as emperor in 79. When he died two years later, so did Berenice disappear from the historical record.

Early life

Berenice was born in 28 to Herod Agrippa

Agrippa I

Aristobulus IV

Aristobulus IV was a prince of Judea from the :Category:Herodian dynasty, and was married to his cousin, Berenice , daughter of Costobar and Salome....
and great-granddaughter to Herod the Great

Herod the Great

Herod , also known as Herod I or Herod the Great , was a Roman Empire client state of Israel. Herod is known for his colossal building projects in Jerusalem and other parts of the ancient world, including the rebuilding of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, sometimes referred to as Herod's Temple....
. Her elder brother was Agrippa II

Agrippa II

Mariamne (daughter of Herod Agrippa I)

Mariamne was a daughter of King Herod Agrippa I. She was betrothed by her father to Gaius Julius Archelaus Antiochus Epiphanes, first son of King Antiochus IV of Commagene, but this marriage had not yet been enacted upon her father's death....
(b. 34) and Drusilla

Drusilla (daughter of Agrippa I)

Drusilla was a daughter of Herod Agrippa I and thus sister to Berenice , Mariamne and Herod Agrippa II....
(b. 38). According to Josephus

Josephus

Josephus , also known as Yosef Ben Matityahu and, after he became a Roman citizenship, as Titus Flavius Josephus, was a first-century Jewish historian and apologist of priestly and royal ancestry who survived and recorded the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70....
, there was also a younger brother called Drusus, who died before his teens. Her family constituted part of what is known as the Herodian Dynasty

Herodian Dynasty

The Herodian Dynasty was a Jewish dynasty of Idumea descent, who ruled Iudaea Province between 37 BC - AD 92....
, who ruled the Judaea Province between 39 BC and 92.

Josephus

Josephus

Josephus , also known as Yosef Ben Matityahu and, after he became a Roman citizenship, as Titus Flavius Josephus, was a first-century Jewish historian and apologist of priestly and royal ancestry who survived and recorded the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70....
records three shortlived marriages in Berenice's life, the first which took place sometime between 41 and 43, to Marcus Julius Alexander, brother of Tiberius Julius Alexander

Tiberius Julius Alexander

Tiberius Julius Alexander was an Equestrian governor and general in the Roman Empire. Born into a wealthy Jewish family of Alexandria but abandoning or neglecting the Judaism, he rose to become Promagistrate of Iudaea Province under Claudius....
and son of Alexander the Arabarch of Alexandria

Alexandria

Alexandria , with a population of 4.1 million, is the second-largest city in Egypt, and is the country's largest seaport, serving about 80% of Egypt's imports and exports....
. On his early death in 44, she was married to her father's brother, Herod of Chalcis

Herod of Chalcis

File:Herold_of_Chalcis_coin_showing_Herod_of_Chalcis_with_brother_Agrippa_of_Judaea_crowning_Roman_Emperor_Claudius_I.jpgHerod of Chalcis , was a son of Aristobulus IV, and the grandson of Herod the Great, Roman client king of Iudaea Province....
, with whom she had two sons, Berenicianus and Hyrcanus. When he died in 48, she lived with her brother Agrippa for several years until she married Polemon II

Polemon (Cilicia)

Marcus Antonius Polemon Pythodoros, also known as Polemon II of Pontus, Polemon II and Polemon of Cilicia was a prince and Ancient Rome Client King of Pontus, Colchis and Cilicia....
, king of Cilicia

Cilicia

In antiquity, Cilicia now known as ?ukurova, was a commonly used name of the south coastal region of the Anatolian peninsula, and a political entity in Roman times....
, who she subsequently deserted again. According to Josephus, Berenice requested this marriage to dispel rumors that she and her brother were carrying on an incest

Incest

Incest refers to any sexual activity between closely related persons that is illegal or socially taboo. The type of sexual activity and the nature of the relationship between persons that constitutes a breach of law or social taboo vary with culture and jurisdiction....
uous relationship, with Polemon being persuaded to this union mostly on account of her wealth. However the marriage did not last and she soon returned to the court of her brother. Josephus was not the only ancient writer to suggest incestuous relations between Berenice and Agrippa. Juvenal, in his sixth satire

Satire VI

Satire VI is the most famous of the sixteen Satires of Juvenal by the Ancient Rome author Juvenal written in the late 1st or early 2nd century CE....
, outright claims that they were lovers. Whether this was based on truth remains unknown. Berenice indeed spent much of her life at the court of Agrippa, and by all accounts shared almost equal power. Popular rumors may also have been fueled by the fact that Agrippa himself never married during his lifetime.

Like her brother, Berenice was a client queen

Client state

Syria

Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is an Arab-majority country in Southwest Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Israel to the southwest, Jordan to the south, Iraq to the east, and Turkey to the north....
. The Acts of the Apostles

Acts of the Apostles

The Acts of the Apostles is a book of the Bible, which now stands fifth in the New Testament. It is commonly referred to as simply Acts. The title "Acts of the Apostles" was first used by Irenaeus in the late second century, but some have suggested that the title "Acts" be interpreted as "the Acts of the Holy Spirit" or even "the Acts...
records that during this time, in 60, Paul of Tarsus

Paul of Tarsus

Saint Paul, also called Paul the Apostle, the Apostle Paul or Paul of Tarsus , was a Hellenistic Judaism, who called himself the "Apostle to the Gentiles", and was, together with Saint Peter and James the Just, the most notable of early Christian missionaries....
appeared before their court at Caesarea.

Jewish-Roman wars

Great Jewish revolt

In 64 emperor Nero

Nero

Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus , born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus, was the fifth and final Roman emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty....
appointed Gessius Florus

Gessius Florus

Gessius Florus was the Roman Empire procurator of Iudaea Province from 64 until 66. Born in Clazomenae, Florus was appointed to replace Lucceius Albinus as promagistrate by the Roman Emperor Nero due to his wife's friendship with Nero's wife Poppaea Sabina....
as procurator

List of Kings of Judea

This page lists rulers of Judea and other related Jewish Kingdoms from the Maccabean Rebellion to the final Roman annexations....
of the Judaea Province. During his administration, the Jews were systematically discriminated in favour of the Greek population of the region. Tensions quickly rose to civil unrest when Florus plundered the treasury of the Temple

Second Temple

The Second Temple was the reconstructed Temple in Jerusalem which stood between 516 BCE and 70 CE. During this time, it was the center of Judaism worship, which focused on the sacrifices known as the korbanot....
of Jerusalem

Jerusalem

Jerusalem is the capital of Israel and its List of Israeli cities in both population and area, with a population of 747,600 residents over an area of if Positions on Jerusalem East Jerusalem is included....
under the guise of imperial taxes. Following riots, the instigators were arrested and crucified

Crucifixion

Crucifixion is an ancient method of execution , whereby the condemned person is tied or nailed to a large wooden cross and left to hang until dead....
by the Romans. Appalled at the treatment of her countrymen, Berenice travelled to Jerusalem in 66 to personally petition Florus to spare the Jews, but not only did he refuse to comply with her requests, Berenice herself was nearly killed during skirmishes in the city. Likewise a plea for assistance to the legate of Syria

Syria

Cestius Gallus

Gaius Cestius Gallus was the son of a consul in ancient Rome and himself a suffect consul in 42.He was Legatus of Syria from 63 or 65. He marched into Judea in 66 in an attempt to restore calm at the outset of the Great Jewish Revolt....
, met with no response.

To prevent Jewish violence from further escalating, Agrippa assembled the populace and delivered a tearful speech to the crowd in the company of his sister, but the Jews alienated their sympathies when the insurgents burned down their palaces. They fled the city to Galilee

Galilee

Galilee , is a large region in northern Israel which overlaps with much of the administrative North District of the country. Traditionally divided into Upper Galilee , Lower Galilee , and Western Galilee , extending from Dan to the north, at the base of Mount Hermon, along Mount Lebanon to the ridges of Mount Carmel and Mount Gilboa t...
where they later gave themselves up to the Romans. Meanwhile Cestius Gallus moved into the region with the twelfth legion

Legio XII Fulminata

Legio duodecima Fulminata , also known as Paterna, Victrix, Antiqua, Certa Constans, and Galliena, was a Roman legion, levied by Julius Caesar in 58 BC and which accompanied him during the Gallic wars until 49 BC....
, but was unable to restore order and suffered defeat at the battle of Beth-Horon

Beth-horon

Bethoron was the name for two adjacent towns, Bethoron Elyon , and Bethoron Tahton , named for the Ancient Egypt-Canaanite deity Horon mentioned in Ugaritic literature and other texts....
, forcing the Romans to retreat from Jerusalem.

Emperor Nero

Nero

Vespasian

Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian , was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 69 A.D. until his death in 79 A.D. Vespasian was the founder of the short lived Flavian dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 A.D....
to put down the rebellion, who landed in Judaea with fifth

Legio V Macedonica

Legio quinta Macedonica was a Roman legion. It was probably originally levied by consul Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus and Augustus in 43 BC, and it existed in Moesia at least until 5th century....
and tenth legions

Legio X Fretensis

Legio decima Fretensis of the sea strait") was a Roman legion levied by Augustus in 41/40 BC to fight during the period of Roman Civil War that started the dissolution of the Roman Republic....
in 67. He was later joined by his son Titus

Titus

Acre, Israel

Acre also Akko, is a List of Israeli cities in the Western Galilee region of North District Israel. It is situated on a low promontory at the northern extremity of Haifa Bay....
, who brought with him the fifteenth legion

Legio XV Apollinaris

Legio decima quinta Apollinaris was a Roman legion. It was recruited by Augustus in 41/40 BC. The emblem of this legion was probably a picture of Apollo, or of one of his holy animals....
. With a strength of 60,000 professional soldiers, the Romans quickly swept across Galilee and by 69 marched on Jerusalem.

Affair with Titus

It was during this time that Berenice met and fell in love with Titus, who was eleven years her junior. The Herodians sided with the Flavians

Flavian dynasty

The Flavian dynasty was a Ancient Rome imperial dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 and 96 AD, encompassing the reigns of Vespasian , and his two sons Titus and Domitian ....
during the conflict, and later in 69, the Year of the Four Emperors

Year of the Four Emperors

The Year of the Four Emperors was a year in the history of the Roman Empire, AD 69, in which four emperors ruled in a remarkable succession. These four emperors were Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian....
—when the Roman Empire saw the quick succession of the emperors Galba

Galba

Servius Sulpicius Galba , also called Servius Sulpicius Galba Caesar Augustus, was Roman Emperor from June 8, 68 until his death. He was the first emperor of the Year of the Four Emperors....
, Otho

Otho

For other uses, see Otho .Marcus Salvius Otho , also called Marcus Salvius Otho Caesar Augustus, was Roman Emperors from 15 January to 16 April 69, the second emperor of the Year of the four emperors....
and Vitellius

Vitellius

Aulus Vitellius Germanicus, born Aulus Vitellius and commonly known as Vitellius , was a Roman Emperors who reigned from 16 April 69 to 22 December of the same year....
—Berenice reportedly used all her wealth and influence to support Vespasian on his campaign to become emperor. When Vespasian was declared emperor on December 21 of 69, Titus was left in Judaea to finish putting down the rebellion. The war ended in 70 with the destruction of the Second Temple

Second Temple

Siege of Jerusalem (70)

The Siege of Jerusalem in the year 70 AD was a decisive event in the First Jewish-Roman War. It was followed by the Masada#History in 73 AD. The Roman Empire army, led by the future Emperor Titus, with Tiberius Julius Alexander as his second-in-command, besieged and conquered the city of Jerusalem, which had been occupied by its Jewish defend...
, with approximately 1 million dead, and 97,000 taken captive by the Romans. Triumphant, Titus returned to Rome to assist his father in the government, while Berenice stayed behind in Judaea.

It took four years until they reunited, when she and Agrippa came to Rome in 75. The reasons for this long absence are unclear, but have been linked to possible opposition to her presence by Gaius Licinius Mucianus, a political ally of emperor Vespasian who died sometime between 72 and 78. Agrippa was given the rank of praetor

Praetor

Praetor was a Title#Titles_for_heads_of_state granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities: the commander of an army, either before it was mustered or more typically in the field, or an elected Magistratus assigned duties that varied depending on the historical period....
, while Berenice resumed her relationship with Titus, living with him at the palace and reportedly acting in every respect as his wife. The ancient historian Cassius Dio writes that Berenice was at the height of her power during this time, and if it can be any indication as to how influential she was, Quintilian

Quintilian

Marcus Fabius Quintilianus was a Roman Empire rhetorician from Hispania, widely referred to in Middle ages schools of rhetoric and in Renaissance writing....
records an anecdote

Anecdote

An anecdote is a short Narrative narrating an interesting or amusing biographical incident. It may be as brief as the setting and provocation of a List of French phrases#B....
in his Institutio Oratoria where, to his astonishment, he found himself pleading a case on Berenice's behalf where she herself presided as the judge

Judge

A judge, or arbiter of justice, is a lead official who presides over a court of law,which is operated by the local, state, and/or federal government....
. The Roman populace however perceived the Eastern Queen as an intrusive outsider, and when the pair was publicly denounced by Cynic

Cynic

The Cynics were an influential group of philosophers from the ancient School of Cynicism. Their philosophy was that the purpose of Personal life was to live a life of Virtue in agreement with Nature....
s in the theatre, Titus caved in to the pressure and sent her away.

Upon the accession of Titus as emperor in 79, she returned to Rome, but was quickly dismissed amidst a number of popular measures of Titus to restore his reputation with the populace. It is possible that he intended to send for her at a more convenient time. However after reigning barely two years as emperor, he suddenly died on September 13, 81

Year 81 was a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar....
.

It is not known what happened to Berenice after her final dismissal from Rome. Her brother Agrippa died around 92, and with him the Herodian Dynasty came to an end.

In modern history, her aspirations as a potential empress of Rome have led to her being described as a 'miniature Cleopatra'.

Berenice in the Arts

From the seventeenth century to contemporary times, there has been a long tradition of works of art (novels, dramas, operas, etc.) devoted to Berenice and her affair with the Roman Emperor Titus. The list includes:

Lettres de Bérénice à Titus (1642), a French novel by Madeleine de Scudéry
Madeleine de Scudéry

Madeleine de Scud?ry , often known simply as Mademoiselle de Scud?ry, was a French people writer. She was the younger sister of author Georges de Scud?ry, but is generally regarded as his superior in skill....
Bérénice (1648-50), a French novel by Jean Regnauld de Segrais
Tite (1660), a French drama by Jean Magnon
Il Tito (1666), an Italian opera by Antonio Cesti
Antonio Cesti

Antonio Cesti , known today primarily as an Italy composer of the Baroque music era, he was also a singer , and Organ . He was "the most celebrated Italian musician of his generation"....
(mus.) and Nicola Beregani (libr.)
Bérénice (1670), a French drama by Jean Racine
Jean Racine

Jean Racine was a France dramatist, one of the "big three" of 17th century France , and one of the most important literary figures in the Western tradition....
Tite et Bérénice (1670), a French drama by Pierre Corneille
Pierre Corneille

File:Pierre Corneille 3.jpgPierre Corneille was a French tragedy who was one of the three great seventeenth Century French dramatists, along with Moli?re and Jean Racine....
Titus and Berenice (1676), an English drama by Thomas Otway
Thomas Otway

Thomas Otway was an England dramatist of the English Restoration period.He was born at Trotton, near Midhurst, the parish of which his father, Humphrey Otway, was at that time curate....
Tito e Berenice (1714), an Italian opera by Antonio Caldara
Antonio Caldara

Antonio Caldara was an Italy Baroque composer.Caldara was born in Venice , the son of a violinist. He became a chorister at St Mark's Cathedral in Venice, where he learned several instruments, probably under the instruction of Giovanni Legrenzi....
(mus.) and Carlo Sigismondo Capace (libr.)
Berenice (1725), an Italian opera by Giuseppe Maria Orlandini (mus.) and Benedetto Pasqualigo (libr.). Also set to music by Niccolò Vito Piccinni (1766)
Tito e Berenice (1776), an Italian opera by Raimondo Mei (mus.) and Carlo Giuseppe Lanfranchi-Rossi (libr.)
Tito e Berenice (1782), a ballet by Paolino Franchi (chor.)
Tito; o, La partenza di Berenice (1790), a ballet by Domenico Maria Gaspero Angiolini (mus. and chor.)
Tito e Berenice (1793), an Italian opera by Sebastiano Nasolini (mus.) and Giuseppe Maria Foppa (libr.)
Tito che abbandona Berenice (1828), a painting by Giuseppe Bezzuoli
Giuseppe Bezzuoli

Giuseppe Bezzuoli was an Italy painter of the Neoclassicism period, active in Milan, Rome, and his native city of Florence.He was a candidate to the professorship of painting at the Florence Academy after Pietro Benvenuti's death....
Titus et Bérénice (1860), a French opera by Leon-Gustave-Cyprien Gastinel (mus.) and Edouard Fournier (libr.)
Berenice (1890), a German novel by Heinrich Vollrat Schumacher
Bérénice (1909), a French opera by Lucien-Denis-Gabriel-Alberic Magnard (mus. and libr.)
Titus und die Jüdin (1911), a German drama by Hans Kyser
Lost Diaries: From the Diary of Emperor Titus (1913), an English novel by Maurice Baring
Maurice Baring

Maurice Baring was a versatile English man of letters, known as a dramatist, poet, novelist, translator and essayist, and also as a travel writer and war correspondent....
Bérénice, l’Hérodienne (1919), a French drama by Albert du Bois
Bérénice (1920), incidental music by Marcel Samuel-Rousseau
Marcel Samuel-Rousseau

Marcel Samuel-Rousseau was a France composer, organist, and opera director. He studied compostion at the Paris Conservatoire and was awarded the Prix de Rome in 1905....
Berenice (1922), an English drama by John Masefield
John Masefield

John Edward Masefield, Order of Merit, was an English poet and writer, and Poet Laureate from 1930 until his death in 1967. He is remembered as the author of the classic children's novels The Midnight Folk and The Box of Delights, 19 other novels , and many memorable poems, including "The Everlasting Mercy" and "Sea-Fever", f...
Bérénice (1934), a French parody by Noel Ouden
Berinikah (1945), a Hebrew drama by Eisig Silberschlag and Carl de Haas
Le reine de Césarée (1954), a French drama by Robert Brasillach
Robert Brasillach

Robert Brasillach was a France author and journalist who was capital punishment for advocating collaborationism with Nazi Germany during World War II....
Berenice, Princess of Judea (1959), an English novel by Leon Kolb
Mission to Claudies (1963), an English novel by Leon Kolb
Agrippa’s Daughter (1964), an English novel by Howard Melvin Fast
La pourpre de Judée: ou, Les délices du genre humain (1967), a French novel by Maurice Clavel
Bérénice (1968), a French TV-film by Piere-Alain Jolivet
Tito y Berenice (1970), a Spanish drama by Rene Marques
René Marques

Ren? Marqu?s born in Arecibo, Puerto Rico, was a renowned short story writer and playwright....
Bérénice (1983), a French TV-film by Raoul Ruiz
Raoul Ruiz

Ra?l Ruiz is a filmmaker now based in France.He spent some years at the Catholic University of Santa Fe, Argentina's cinema school. Back in Chile he directed his first feature film Tres tristes tigres in the the late 1960s, winning the Golden Leopard at the Locarno Film Festival....

The love story between Berenice and Titus is also the premise of La clemenza di Tito

La clemenza di Tito

La clemenza di Tito , K?chel-Verzeichnis 621, is an opera seria composed by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, with text after Metastasio. It was started after the bulk of The Magic Flute, the last opera that Mozart worked on, was already written ....
(1734), an Italian opera by Antonio Caldara

Antonio Caldara

Antonio Caldara was an Italy Baroque composer.Caldara was born in Venice , the son of a violinist. He became a chorister at St Mark's Cathedral in Venice, where he learned several instruments, probably under the instruction of Giovanni Legrenzi....
(mus.) and Pietro Metastasio (libr.), later set to music by more than 40 other composers, including Johann Adolph Hasse

Johann Adolph Hasse

Johann Adolph Hasse was an 18th-century Germany composer, singer and teacher of music. Immensely popular in his time, Hasse was best known for his prolific operatic output, though he also composed a considerable quantity of sacred music....
(1735), Giuseppe Arena (1738), Francesco Corradini (1747), Christoph Willibald Gluck

Christoph Willibald Gluck

Christoph Willibald Ritter von Gluck was an opera composer of the early classical period. After many years at the Habsburg court at Vienna, Gluck brought about the practical reform of opera's dramaturgical practices that many intellectuals had been campaigning for over the years....
(1752), Andrea Adolfati (1753), Niccolò Jommelli

Niccolò Jommelli

Niccol? Jommelli was an Italy composer. He was born in Aversa and died in Naples. Along with other composers mainly in the Holy Roman Empire and France, he made important changes to opera and reduced the importance of star singers....
(1753), Ignaz Holzbauer

Ignaz Holzbauer

Ignaz Jakob Holzbauer was a composer of symphony, concertos, operas, and chamber music, and a member of the Mannheim school. His aesthetic style is in line with that of the Sturm und Drang "movement" of German art and literature....
(1757), Vincenzo Legrezio Ciampi (1757), Gioacchino Cocchi

Gioacchino Cocchi

Gioacchino Cocchi was an Italian composer.He was particularly famous for his theatre music . His first works were performed at Naples and Rome....
(1760), Marcello Bernardini (1768), Andrea Bernasconi (1768), Pasquale Anfossi

Pasquale Anfossi

Bonifacio Domenico Pasquale Anfossi was an Italy opera composer. Born in Taggia, Liguria, he studied with Niccol? Piccinni and Antonio Sacchini, and worked mainly in London, Venice and Rome....
(1769), and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Mozart showed prodigious ability from his earliest childhood in Salzburg. Already competent on keyboard and violin, he composed from the age of five and performed before European royalty; at seventeen he was engaged as a court musician in Salzburg, but grew restless and traveled in search of a better position, always...
(1791).

External links

Primary sources

Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, English translation
Josephus, The War of the Jews, Book II, English translation
Tacitus, Histories, Book 2, English translation
, English translation

Berenice of Cilicia

Early life

Jewish-Roman wars

Great Jewish revolt

Affair with Titus

Berenice in the Arts

External links

Primary sources

Images