Battle of Xiaoting
Encyclopedia
The Battle of Xiaoting, also known as the Battle of Yiling and the Battle of Yiling and Xiaoting, was fought between the states of Eastern Wu
and Shu Han
in 222 during the Three Kingdoms
period of Chinese history
. The battle was most significant for the decisive Wu victory, which halted the Shu invasion and preceded the death of Shu's emperor Liu Bei
in Baidicheng.
's general Lü Meng
invaded and annexed Liu Bei's territory in Jing Province. Guan Yu
, the general appointed by Liu Bei to defend Jing Province, was captured after his defeat and executed on Sun Quan's order. Liu Bei was enraged by the sudden attack because Sun Quan was formerly his ally, and also due to his close relationship with Guan Yu.
In 220, Cao Pi
forced Emperor Xian
to abdicate in his favour, effectively ending the Han Dynasty
and starting the state of Cao Wei
. A year later, Liu Bei declared himself Emperor
of Shu Han
in Yi Province (covering the Sichuan Basin
). Sun Quan had not declared himself emperor yet then, and his state was known as Eastern Wu
. In 221, Liu Bei planned to attack Wu to retake Jing Province and avenge Guan Yu. However, many of his subjects, including Zhao Yun
, opposed his decision, but Liu Bei ignored them.
Liu Bei was overwhelmed with grief over the loss of two of his generals who had accompanied since the beginning of his military career. Zhang Fei's death hardened his decision to attack Wu for revenge. Again, many Shu officials attempted to dissuade Liu Bei from attacking Wu but Liu dismissed their advice. Eventually, Liu Bei departed from his capital Chengdu
with a large army and advanced towards Jing Province on both land and water (along the Yangtze River
). He left his chancellor Zhuge Liang
and crown prince Liu Shan
to defend Chengdu.
's strategy and appoint Lu as Grand Viceroy (de facto commander-in-chief of Sun Quan's forces).
Wu forces realised that the Shu troops were better versed in warfare in mountainous terrain as they were mostly ground troops. Thus, they decided to abandon their defenses at certain territories and retreat to vital positions and defend them instead. After that, they would hold on to those positions and wait for an opportunity to launch a counterattack.
and Chen Shi
captured Yiling. Liu Bei built his headquarters in Zigui but did not stay there for long as his forces continued to make progress and push further into the heartland of Wu. In February, the Shu vanguard broke through enemy lines at Yidao and defeated the Wu defenders in engagement outside the city. The Wu general Sun Huan, who was guarding Yidao, retreated with his remaining troops into the city and held on to their positions until a stalemate was reached.
Meanwhile, the main Shu force led by Liu Bei reached Xiaoting and was unable to push any further as Wu forces led by Lu Xun held on firmly to their positions. With no further retreat by Wu forces, both sides reached at stalemate at Xiaoting.
lengthened and supplies took longer to arrive. They also became gradually weary and tired from battle. The terrain became flatter and the Shu infantry lost its advantage in mountainous terrain. Liu Bei deployed his troops in over 50 camps along the 350 km line from Wuxia to Yiling on the southern bank of the Yangtze River
. His vanguard army was isolated 150 km away at Yidao. Wu forces thought that it was the best time to launch their counterattack but Lu Xun ordered them to hold on.
By March, most of the Wu forces have evacuated from mountainous terrain and held up in their fortifications on flat terrain. Summer soon arrived and the sweltering heat killed several plants and shrubs. Liu Bei's forces camped at Yiling were directly next to a forest so the heat became even more unbearable. Some Shu soldiers were affected by heatstroke. By then, the Shu army's morale had fallen significantly as compared to at the start of the campaign, as the troops were now weary and suffering from the intense heat.
Liu Bei planned an ambush which turned out to be a failure. He deployed 8,000 elite troops to lie in ambush in nearby valleys and sent Wu Ban to lead a weaker force to challenge and lure Wu forces out of their fortifications into the ambush. However, Lu Xun saw through Liu Bei's ruse and ordered his troops to ignore taunts from the enemy. It was said that he even ordered his troops to put wax into their ears. The failure of the ambush caused the Shu army's morale to plummet even lower.
In July, Lu Xun knew that the time was ripe for the counterattack. He ordered saboteurs to encircle Liu Bei's camp by travelling on water with the navy. Once they were behind Liu Bei's camp at Yiling, the saboteurs set the camp on fire. The woods gradually became a fiery inferno within hours as wildfires fueled by dead plants and dry air erupted everywhere. As Shu soldiers rushed towards the Yangtze River
for water to put out the fires, Wu archers lying in ambush shot them down. Shu forces attempted a counterattack, but Wu forces led by Pan Zhang
broke through the lines they reformed and made retaliation impossible.
Shu forces lost over 40 of their original 50 camps on the 350 km line to a rockslide at the Ma'an Hills. Liu Bei attempted to reform and regroup his remaining forces at the hills to make a last stand. However, his troops were split up before they could regroup as one. Wu general Zhu Ran
led an army of 5,000 to disrupt the lines and prevent Liu Bei from reforming. Lu Xun personally led an attack on Shu forces together with Xu Sheng
and Han Dang
, and succeeded in preventing Liu Bei from making his last stand. The entire Shu army was nearly wiped out at Ma'an Hills.
, where they were cut off from the rest of the Shu army, and eventually they decided to surrender to Wei.
Liu Bei fled to Zigui with Wu forces hot on his heels and the demoralised Shu troops were unable to hold their ground and kept retreating. During the withdrawal, Wang Fu, the Shu official in charge of Jing Province, was killed in the ensuing battle, but his death bought time for Liu Bei to continue retreating. Xiang Chong, who was stationed at Jing Province, managed to regroup the surviving Shu troops and lead them on an orderly retreat without them suffering any further great losses.
Xiang Chong also led Liu Bei safely to Yufu (present-day Fengjie County, Chongqing
) and managed to repel any further attacks by pursuing enemy forces. Liu Bei was impressed with Xiang Chong and promoted him to the rank of viceroy. Eventually, reinforcements from Jiangzhou led by Zhao Yun
arrived and a stalemate was reached before Wu forces decided to retreat, thus ending their counterattack. Of all the Shu commanders who participated in the battle, most of them were killed and only naval commanders Wu Ban
and Chen Shi
managed to return safely.
Liu Bei died a year later in the spring of 223 at Baidicheng from dysentery
. He was succeeded by his crown prince Liu Shan
, with chancellor Zhuge Liang
and general Li Yan serving as regents.
on behalf of the new emperor Liu Shan
. Zhuge Liang sought to make peace with Wu and restore their alliance. This was achieved in 223.
On the other hand, the Battle of Xiaoting allowed Wu to establish its control over Jing Province after the victory. Lu Xun
rose to fame for his role in the battle, and his victory marked the beginning of an illustrious career that led to his appointment as chancellor of Wu more than 20 years after the battle.
Shamoke
, a tribal king allied with Shu
, who commanded warriors numbering tens of thousands; while the forces of Wu was anticipating a probable invasion from the state of Wei, and had the army split: the Wu forces in Xiaoting amounted to about 50,000.
's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms
.
, in which it is known as the "Battle of Yi Ling".
Eastern Wu
Eastern Wu, also known as Sun Wu, was one the three states competing for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period after the fall of the Han Dynasty. It was based in the Jiangnan region of China...
and Shu Han
Shu Han
Shu Han was one of the three states competing for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period, after the fall of the Han Dynasty. The state was based on areas around Sichuan, which was then known as Shu...
in 222 during the Three Kingdoms
Three Kingdoms
The Three Kingdoms period was a period in Chinese history, part of an era of disunity called the "Six Dynasties" following immediately the loss of de facto power of the Han Dynasty rulers. In a strict academic sense it refers to the period between the foundation of the state of Wei in 220 and the...
period of Chinese history
History of China
Chinese civilization originated in various regional centers along both the Yellow River and the Yangtze River valleys in the Neolithic era, but the Yellow River is said to be the Cradle of Chinese Civilization. With thousands of years of continuous history, China is one of the world's oldest...
. The battle was most significant for the decisive Wu victory, which halted the Shu invasion and preceded the death of Shu's emperor Liu Bei
Liu Bei
Liu Bei , also known as Liu Xuande, was a warlord, military general and later the founding emperor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history...
in Baidicheng.
Guan Yu's death and the fall of Jing Province
In 219, Sun QuanSun Quan
Sun Quan , son of Sun Jian, formally Emperor Da of Wu, was the founder of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He ruled from 222 to 229 as King of Wu and from 229 to 252 as Emperor of Wu....
's general Lü Meng
Lü Meng
Lü Meng was a military general serving under the warlord Sun Quan during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He served as the commanding general in the invasion of Jing Province that led to the death of Guan Yu.-Early life:Lü Meng was born in Fupo, Runan Commandery in 178...
invaded and annexed Liu Bei's territory in Jing Province. Guan Yu
Guan Yu
Guan Yu was a general serving under the warlord Liu Bei during the late Eastern Han Dynasty of China. He played a significant role in the civil war that led to the collapse of the Han Dynasty and the establishment of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period, of which Liu Bei was the...
, the general appointed by Liu Bei to defend Jing Province, was captured after his defeat and executed on Sun Quan's order. Liu Bei was enraged by the sudden attack because Sun Quan was formerly his ally, and also due to his close relationship with Guan Yu.
In 220, Cao Pi
Cao Pi
Cao Pi , formally known as Emperor Wen of Wei, was the first emperor of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. Born in Qiao County, Pei Commandery , he was the second son of the late Han Dynasty warlord Cao Cao.Cao Pi, like his father, was a poet...
forced Emperor Xian
Emperor Xian of Han
Emperor Xian of Han , personal name Liu Xie, style name Bohe, was the last emperor of the Han Dynasty period of Chinese history...
to abdicate in his favour, effectively ending the Han Dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
and starting the state of Cao Wei
Cao Wei
Cao Wei was one of the states that competed for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period. With the capital at Luoyang, the state was established by Cao Pi in 220, based upon the foundations that his father Cao Cao laid...
. A year later, Liu Bei declared himself Emperor
Emperor of China
The Emperor of China refers to any sovereign of Imperial China reigning between the founding of Qin Dynasty of China, united by the King of Qin in 221 BCE, and the fall of Yuan Shikai's Empire of China in 1916. When referred to as the Son of Heaven , a title that predates the Qin unification, the...
of Shu Han
Shu Han
Shu Han was one of the three states competing for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period, after the fall of the Han Dynasty. The state was based on areas around Sichuan, which was then known as Shu...
in Yi Province (covering the Sichuan Basin
Sichuan basin
The Sichuan Basin is a lowland region in southwestern China. Despite its historical name, it is not only synonymous to Sichuan province, comprising its central and eastern portions as well as part of Chongqing Municipality...
). Sun Quan had not declared himself emperor yet then, and his state was known as Eastern Wu
Eastern Wu
Eastern Wu, also known as Sun Wu, was one the three states competing for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period after the fall of the Han Dynasty. It was based in the Jiangnan region of China...
. In 221, Liu Bei planned to attack Wu to retake Jing Province and avenge Guan Yu. However, many of his subjects, including Zhao Yun
Zhao Yun
Zhao Yun was a military general who lived during the late Han Dynasty and early Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. For most of his career, Zhao served the warlord Liu Bei, playing a part in the establishment of state of Shu Han...
, opposed his decision, but Liu Bei ignored them.
Zhang Fei's death
As Liu Bei mobilized his troops in preparation for the attack on Wu, another of his generals, Zhang Fei, was assassinated by his subordinates Fan Qiang and Zhang Da. Zhang Fei was growing impatient with the preparations for war, so he imposed strict deadlines on Fan Qiang and Zhang Da, but his subordinates failed to meet the time limit. Zhang Fei disparaged them before warning them that they would be executed under military law if they foundered again. Out of fear, Fan Qiang and Zhang Da killed Zhang Fei while he was asleep, cut off his head, and defected to Eastern Wu.Liu Bei was overwhelmed with grief over the loss of two of his generals who had accompanied since the beginning of his military career. Zhang Fei's death hardened his decision to attack Wu for revenge. Again, many Shu officials attempted to dissuade Liu Bei from attacking Wu but Liu dismissed their advice. Eventually, Liu Bei departed from his capital Chengdu
Chengdu
Chengdu , formerly transliterated Chengtu, is the capital of Sichuan province in Southwest China. It holds sub-provincial administrative status...
with a large army and advanced towards Jing Province on both land and water (along the Yangtze River
Yangtze River
The Yangtze, Yangzi or Cháng Jiāng is the longest river in Asia, and the third-longest in the world. It flows for from the glaciers on the Tibetan Plateau in Qinghai eastward across southwest, central and eastern China before emptying into the East China Sea at Shanghai. It is also one of the...
). He left his chancellor Zhuge Liang
Zhuge Liang
Zhuge Liang was a chancellor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He is often recognised as the greatest and most accomplished strategist of his era....
and crown prince Liu Shan
Liu Shan
Liu Shan, , was the second and last emperor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. As he ascended the throne at the young age of 16, Liu Shan was entrusted to the care of the Chancellor Zhuge Liang and Imperial Secretariat Li Yan...
to defend Chengdu.
Wu defeats
Initially, Wu forces underestimated the enemy's tenacity due to their superiority in numbers. As the advancing Shu army captured regions including Zigui, Wu County, Mount Ba and Mount Xing, Wu forces that set out from their fortifications to engage the enemy were nearly all annihilated. The initial defeat made Sun Quan decide to adopt Lu XunLu Xun (Three Kingdoms)
Lu Xun was a military general and politician of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. He is best known for defeating Liu Bei's forces at the Battle of Xiaoting in 222.-Early life:...
's strategy and appoint Lu as Grand Viceroy (de facto commander-in-chief of Sun Quan's forces).
Wu forces realised that the Shu troops were better versed in warfare in mountainous terrain as they were mostly ground troops. Thus, they decided to abandon their defenses at certain territories and retreat to vital positions and defend them instead. After that, they would hold on to those positions and wait for an opportunity to launch a counterattack.
Retreat and stalemates
In January, Shu naval forces led by Wu BanWu Ban
Wu Ban, style name Yuanxiong , was a military general of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. A relative of Wu Yi , Wu Ban at one time was a close servant under Liu Zhang. During the Battle of Xiaoting against Sun Quan, Wu Ban was tasked to lead the vanguard, winning many...
and Chen Shi
Chen Shi
Chen Shi was a military general serving under the warlord Liu Bei during the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history.-Biography:...
captured Yiling. Liu Bei built his headquarters in Zigui but did not stay there for long as his forces continued to make progress and push further into the heartland of Wu. In February, the Shu vanguard broke through enemy lines at Yidao and defeated the Wu defenders in engagement outside the city. The Wu general Sun Huan, who was guarding Yidao, retreated with his remaining troops into the city and held on to their positions until a stalemate was reached.
Meanwhile, the main Shu force led by Liu Bei reached Xiaoting and was unable to push any further as Wu forces led by Lu Xun held on firmly to their positions. With no further retreat by Wu forces, both sides reached at stalemate at Xiaoting.
Falling morale of the Shu army
As Shu troops ventured further into Wu territory, their supply lines from ChengduChengdu
Chengdu , formerly transliterated Chengtu, is the capital of Sichuan province in Southwest China. It holds sub-provincial administrative status...
lengthened and supplies took longer to arrive. They also became gradually weary and tired from battle. The terrain became flatter and the Shu infantry lost its advantage in mountainous terrain. Liu Bei deployed his troops in over 50 camps along the 350 km line from Wuxia to Yiling on the southern bank of the Yangtze River
Yangtze River
The Yangtze, Yangzi or Cháng Jiāng is the longest river in Asia, and the third-longest in the world. It flows for from the glaciers on the Tibetan Plateau in Qinghai eastward across southwest, central and eastern China before emptying into the East China Sea at Shanghai. It is also one of the...
. His vanguard army was isolated 150 km away at Yidao. Wu forces thought that it was the best time to launch their counterattack but Lu Xun ordered them to hold on.
By March, most of the Wu forces have evacuated from mountainous terrain and held up in their fortifications on flat terrain. Summer soon arrived and the sweltering heat killed several plants and shrubs. Liu Bei's forces camped at Yiling were directly next to a forest so the heat became even more unbearable. Some Shu soldiers were affected by heatstroke. By then, the Shu army's morale had fallen significantly as compared to at the start of the campaign, as the troops were now weary and suffering from the intense heat.
Liu Bei planned an ambush which turned out to be a failure. He deployed 8,000 elite troops to lie in ambush in nearby valleys and sent Wu Ban to lead a weaker force to challenge and lure Wu forces out of their fortifications into the ambush. However, Lu Xun saw through Liu Bei's ruse and ordered his troops to ignore taunts from the enemy. It was said that he even ordered his troops to put wax into their ears. The failure of the ambush caused the Shu army's morale to plummet even lower.
Burning of the camps
Shu troops were suffering from the summer heat as the stalemate, which began in March, continued to progress. Liu Bei decided to shift his camp into the nearby forest for shade and shelter from the heat even though his adviser Ma Liang opposed his decision.In July, Lu Xun knew that the time was ripe for the counterattack. He ordered saboteurs to encircle Liu Bei's camp by travelling on water with the navy. Once they were behind Liu Bei's camp at Yiling, the saboteurs set the camp on fire. The woods gradually became a fiery inferno within hours as wildfires fueled by dead plants and dry air erupted everywhere. As Shu soldiers rushed towards the Yangtze River
Yangtze River
The Yangtze, Yangzi or Cháng Jiāng is the longest river in Asia, and the third-longest in the world. It flows for from the glaciers on the Tibetan Plateau in Qinghai eastward across southwest, central and eastern China before emptying into the East China Sea at Shanghai. It is also one of the...
for water to put out the fires, Wu archers lying in ambush shot them down. Shu forces attempted a counterattack, but Wu forces led by Pan Zhang
Pan Zhang
Pan Zhang was a military general of Eastern Wu during the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. Although an active general with high rank, he was known to desire wealth and treasure, and to dress himself in a gaudy fashion...
broke through the lines they reformed and made retaliation impossible.
Shu retreat
The Shu navy fared slightly better by barely managing an orderly retreat. Cheng Ji, a Shu official, personally led a group of men to cover the navy as it withdrew. Wu marine forces caught up with the rear guard of the Shu navy and engaged in battle. Cheng Ji and his men were surrounded by the Wu vanguard force but they managed to hold on by sinking the smaller enemy boats. However, they were eventually outnumbered when the bulk of the Wu navy arrived and were killed.Shu forces lost over 40 of their original 50 camps on the 350 km line to a rockslide at the Ma'an Hills. Liu Bei attempted to reform and regroup his remaining forces at the hills to make a last stand. However, his troops were split up before they could regroup as one. Wu general Zhu Ran
Zhu Ran
Zhu Ran was a military general of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. Despite being a childhood friend of the first emperor of Eastern Wu, Sun Quan, he was never tasked with important position nor assignment before Lü Meng's invasion of southern Jing Province in 219,...
led an army of 5,000 to disrupt the lines and prevent Liu Bei from reforming. Lu Xun personally led an attack on Shu forces together with Xu Sheng
Xu Sheng
Xu Sheng , style name Wenxiang , was a military general of Eastern Wu during the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. He fought in at least 5 wars for the southern regime during his lifetime...
and Han Dang
Han Dang
Han Dang was a military general of Eastern Wu during the late Han Dynasty and early Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history.-Biography:...
, and succeeded in preventing Liu Bei from making his last stand. The entire Shu army was nearly wiped out at Ma'an Hills.
Liu Bei's escape and death
The remaining camps of the Shu army were set ablaze by retreating Shu soldiers to hinder Wu forces' pursuit. Meanwhile, the isolated Shu vanguard force at Yidao was also completely destroyed by Wu forces. Huang Quan managed to escape together with his deputy Pang Lin and 318 horsemen to the northern bank of the Yangtze RiverYangtze River
The Yangtze, Yangzi or Cháng Jiāng is the longest river in Asia, and the third-longest in the world. It flows for from the glaciers on the Tibetan Plateau in Qinghai eastward across southwest, central and eastern China before emptying into the East China Sea at Shanghai. It is also one of the...
, where they were cut off from the rest of the Shu army, and eventually they decided to surrender to Wei.
Liu Bei fled to Zigui with Wu forces hot on his heels and the demoralised Shu troops were unable to hold their ground and kept retreating. During the withdrawal, Wang Fu, the Shu official in charge of Jing Province, was killed in the ensuing battle, but his death bought time for Liu Bei to continue retreating. Xiang Chong, who was stationed at Jing Province, managed to regroup the surviving Shu troops and lead them on an orderly retreat without them suffering any further great losses.
Xiang Chong also led Liu Bei safely to Yufu (present-day Fengjie County, Chongqing
Chongqing
Chongqing is a major city in Southwest China and one of the five national central cities of China. Administratively, it is one of the PRC's four direct-controlled municipalities , and the only such municipality in inland China.The municipality was created on 14 March 1997, succeeding the...
) and managed to repel any further attacks by pursuing enemy forces. Liu Bei was impressed with Xiang Chong and promoted him to the rank of viceroy. Eventually, reinforcements from Jiangzhou led by Zhao Yun
Zhao Yun
Zhao Yun was a military general who lived during the late Han Dynasty and early Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. For most of his career, Zhao served the warlord Liu Bei, playing a part in the establishment of state of Shu Han...
arrived and a stalemate was reached before Wu forces decided to retreat, thus ending their counterattack. Of all the Shu commanders who participated in the battle, most of them were killed and only naval commanders Wu Ban
Wu Ban
Wu Ban, style name Yuanxiong , was a military general of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. A relative of Wu Yi , Wu Ban at one time was a close servant under Liu Zhang. During the Battle of Xiaoting against Sun Quan, Wu Ban was tasked to lead the vanguard, winning many...
and Chen Shi
Chen Shi
Chen Shi was a military general serving under the warlord Liu Bei during the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history.-Biography:...
managed to return safely.
Liu Bei died a year later in the spring of 223 at Baidicheng from dysentery
Dysentery
Dysentery is an inflammatory disorder of the intestine, especially of the colon, that results in severe diarrhea containing mucus and/or blood in the faeces with fever and abdominal pain. If left untreated, dysentery can be fatal.There are differences between dysentery and normal bloody diarrhoea...
. He was succeeded by his crown prince Liu Shan
Liu Shan
Liu Shan, , was the second and last emperor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. As he ascended the throne at the young age of 16, Liu Shan was entrusted to the care of the Chancellor Zhuge Liang and Imperial Secretariat Li Yan...
, with chancellor Zhuge Liang
Zhuge Liang
Zhuge Liang was a chancellor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He is often recognised as the greatest and most accomplished strategist of his era....
and general Li Yan serving as regents.
Aftermath
The Battle of Xiaoting sealed the fate of Shu as a large portion of its armed forces were destroyed in the battle. Ever since then, Shu's military was not as powerful as it once was. After Liu Bei's death, Shu was ruled by chancellor-regent Zhuge LiangZhuge Liang
Zhuge Liang was a chancellor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He is often recognised as the greatest and most accomplished strategist of his era....
on behalf of the new emperor Liu Shan
Liu Shan
Liu Shan, , was the second and last emperor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. As he ascended the throne at the young age of 16, Liu Shan was entrusted to the care of the Chancellor Zhuge Liang and Imperial Secretariat Li Yan...
. Zhuge Liang sought to make peace with Wu and restore their alliance. This was achieved in 223.
On the other hand, the Battle of Xiaoting allowed Wu to establish its control over Jing Province after the victory. Lu Xun
Lu Xun (Three Kingdoms)
Lu Xun was a military general and politician of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. He is best known for defeating Liu Bei's forces at the Battle of Xiaoting in 222.-Early life:...
rose to fame for his role in the battle, and his victory marked the beginning of an illustrious career that led to his appointment as chancellor of Wu more than 20 years after the battle.
Shu forces
- Liu BeiLiu BeiLiu Bei , also known as Liu Xuande, was a warlord, military general and later the founding emperor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history...
, Emperor of Shu- Wu BanWu BanWu Ban, style name Yuanxiong , was a military general of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. A relative of Wu Yi , Wu Ban at one time was a close servant under Liu Zhang. During the Battle of Xiaoting against Sun Quan, Wu Ban was tasked to lead the vanguard, winning many...
, defeated Li Yi and Liu E in Wu (巫), garrisoned a naval force at Yiling (彝陵) on the western bank of the Yangtze River - Feng XiFeng XiFeng Xi , style name Xiuyuan , was a military general of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history.In 221, Liu Bei launched a campaign against Sun Quan's forces, starting the Battle of Xiaoting. Feng participated in the initial stages of the battle, joining Wu Ban in defeating...
, defeated Li Yi and Liu E in Wu, served as overall commander of the land forces - Zhang Nan (張南), served as commander of the vanguard
- Chen ShiChen ShiChen Shi was a military general serving under the warlord Liu Bei during the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history.-Biography:...
, garrisoned a naval force at Yidao (彝道) on the western bank of the Yangtze River - Palace Attendant (侍中) Ma LiangMa LiangMa Liang , style name Jichang , sometimes known as Baimei , was an advisor to the warlord Liu Bei during the late Han Dynasty and early Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history.-Biography:...
- General of the Standard (牙門將) Xiang Chong (向寵), defeated at Zigui (秭歸)
- Administrator of Yidu (宜都太守) Liao HuaLiao HuaLiao Hua , originally named Liao Chun , style name Yuanjian , was a military general serving under the warlord Liu Bei during the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history.-Biography:...
, served as a detachment commander (別督) - Wang Fu, killed in action at Zigui (秭歸)
- Li Chao (李朝)
- Fu RongFu RongFu Rong , style name Boxiu , formally Duke Ai of Yangping , was an official and general of the Chinese/Di state Former Qin. He was a younger brother of Fu Jiān, the third emperor of the state.-Early life:...
, killed in action while covering the Shu army's retreat - Cheng Ji (程畿), killed in action during the Shu army's retreat
- Fu Kuang (輔匡), served as a detachment commander (別督)
- Zhao Rong (趙融), served as a detachment commander (別督)
- Du Lu (杜路), surrendered to Wu
- Liu Ning (劉寧), surrendered to Wu
- Wu Ban
- General Who Guards the North (鎮北將軍) Huang Quan, oversaw all the forces stationed north of the Yangtze River, surrendered to Wei
- Assistant Officer in Jing Province's Headquarters Office (荊州治中從事) Pang Lin (龐林), Pang TongPang TongPang Tong was an advisor to Liu Bei during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He was nicknamed "Young Phoenix" by his uncle Pang Degong due to his ugly appearance but great capabilities and talent...
's younger brother, surrendered to Wei together with Huang Quan
- Assistant Officer in Jing Province's Headquarters Office (荊州治中從事) Pang Lin (龐林), Pang Tong
Shamoke
Shamoke
Shamoke was the king of the tribal people of the five valleys in Wuling during the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. During the Battle of Xiaoting between the warlords Liu Bei and Sun Quan, Shamoke led his troops to support Liu and was granted an official post by Liu...
, a tribal king allied with Shu
- Zhao YunZhao YunZhao Yun was a military general who lived during the late Han Dynasty and early Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. For most of his career, Zhao served the warlord Liu Bei, playing a part in the establishment of state of Shu Han...
, remained behind to defend Jiangzhou (江州)
- Zhang Fei, supposed to lead a force from Langzhong (閬中) to rendezvous with Liu Bei in Jiangzhou (江州), but was killed by his subordinates Zhang Da and Fan Qiang
Wu forces
- King of Wu (吳王) Sun QuanSun QuanSun Quan , son of Sun Jian, formally Emperor Da of Wu, was the founder of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He ruled from 222 to 229 as King of Wu and from 229 to 252 as Emperor of Wu....
, stationed in Wuchang (武昌; present-day EzhouEzhou-Geography and climate:Ezhou is located in southeastern Hubei province, on the southern bank of the Yangtze River east of Wuchang , and across the river from the city of Huanggang, to which it is connected by the Ehuang Bridge...
, HubeiHubei' Hupeh) is a province in Central China. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Lake Dongting...
)
- Right Protector of the Army / General Who Guards the West (右護軍 / 鎮西將軍) Lu XunLu Xun (Three Kingdoms)Lu Xun was a military general and politician of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. He is best known for defeating Liu Bei's forces at the Battle of Xiaoting in 222.-Early life:...
, defended Yiling (彝陵) before being appointed by Sun Quan as Grand Viceroy (大都督)- General of Martial Brightness (昭武將軍) Zhu RanZhu RanZhu Ran was a military general of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. Despite being a childhood friend of the first emperor of Eastern Wu, Sun Quan, he was never tasked with important position nor assignment before Lü Meng's invasion of southern Jing Province in 219,...
, led 5,000 troops to defend Yidu (宜都) together with Lu Xun, later defeated the Shu army's vanguard and blocked its return route - General Who Inspires Might (振威將軍) Pan ZhangPan ZhangPan Zhang was a military general of Eastern Wu during the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. Although an active general with high rank, he was known to desire wealth and treasure, and to dress himself in a gaudy fashion...
, defended Yiling (彝陵) together with Lu Xun, his men killed Feng Xi later during the Wu counterattack - Lieutenant General / Administrator of Yongchang (偏將軍 / 永昌太守) Han DangHan DangHan Dang was a military general of Eastern Wu during the late Han Dynasty and early Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history.-Biography:...
, attacked and defeated Shu forces at Yidu (宜都) - Song Qian, attacked and seized five Shu garrisons and killed their defending officers
- General Who Builds Loyalty (建忠將軍) Luo TongLuo TongLuo Tong , style name Gongxu , was a politician and military general serving under the warlord Sun Quan during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history.-Biography:...
, defeated the Shu army at Yidu (宜都) together with Lu Xun - Xu ShengXu ShengXu Sheng , style name Wenxiang , was a military general of Eastern Wu during the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. He fought in at least 5 wars for the southern regime during his lifetime...
, attacked and seized some Shu garrisons when Liu Bei retreated west - Jiang Yi (蔣壹), Jiang QinJiang QinJiang Qin , style name Gongyi , was a military general serving under the warlord Sun Quan during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. In Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Jiang Qin was a pirate at the time he joined Sun Quan's predecessor, Sun Ce...
's son
- General of Martial Brightness (昭武將軍) Zhu Ran
- General Who Pacifies the East (安東將軍) Sun Huan, besieged by Liu Bei in Yidao (夷道) but was saved by Lu Xun
- Xianyu Dan (鮮于丹)
- Li Yi (李異), garrisoned at Wu (巫) and Zigui (秭歸), directly faced the Shu army at Nanshan (南山)
- Liu E (劉阿), garrisoned at Wu and Zigui, directly faced the Shu army at Nanshan
Size of armies
Liu Bei personally led the bulk of Shu's army out for the campaign, with his force amounting to more than 100,000. He was supported by his allies, the tribes along the five creeks further south of Jing Province, amongst them, the strongest was the Wuling tribal king ShamokeShamoke
Shamoke was the king of the tribal people of the five valleys in Wuling during the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. During the Battle of Xiaoting between the warlords Liu Bei and Sun Quan, Shamoke led his troops to support Liu and was granted an official post by Liu...
, who commanded warriors numbering tens of thousands; while the forces of Wu was anticipating a probable invasion from the state of Wei, and had the army split: the Wu forces in Xiaoting amounted to about 50,000.
In fiction
The following are some fictional events related to the battle mentioned in Luo GuanzhongLuo Guanzhong
Luo Ben , better known by his style name Luo Guanzhong , was a Chinese writer of the early Ming Dynasty period of Chinese history. He was also known as Huhai Sanren...
's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms
Romance of the Three Kingdoms
Romance of the Three Kingdoms, written by Luo Guanzhong in the 14th century, is a Chinese historical novel based on the events in the turbulent years near the end of the Han Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history, starting in 169 and ending with the reunification of the land in...
.
- In the novel Sun Quan attempted to make peace with Liu Bei as the Shu army approached by sending the defectors from Shu (Fu Shiren, Mi FangMi FangMi Fang was an official serving under the warlord Liu Bei during the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. He was also the younger brother of Mi Zhu, who also served Liu Bei. In 219, Mi Fang surrendered to Sun Quan, directly resulting in the loss of Jing Province and the...
, Fan Qiang and Zhang Da) back to Liu Bei's side. Fu Shiren and Mi Fang - who caused Guan YuGuan YuGuan Yu was a general serving under the warlord Liu Bei during the late Eastern Han Dynasty of China. He played a significant role in the civil war that led to the collapse of the Han Dynasty and the establishment of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period, of which Liu Bei was the...
to lose Jing ProvinceLü Meng's invasion of Jing ProvinceLü Meng's invasion of Jing Province was a battle fought between the warlords Sun Quan and Liu Bei in 219 during the prelude to the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. Sun Quan's forces, led by Lü Meng, invaded Liu Bei's territory of Jing Province , which was defended by Guan Yu, and succeeded...
- were killed by Guan XingGuan XingGuan Xing was an official of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. He was the second son of the military general Guan Yu and the younger brother of Guan Ping. He succeeded his father when both Guan Yu and Guan Ping were captured and executed by forces of Eastern Wu at the...
, while Fan Qiang and Zhang Da - who assassinated Zhang Fei - were executed by Zhang Bao.
- In the novel Gan NingGan NingGan Ning was a military general serving under the warlord Sun Quan during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He was born in Linjiang, Ba Commandery .-Early life as a pirate:...
was ill with dysentery at the time of the battle but he still participated. He was hit in the head by an arrow fired by ShamokeShamokeShamoke was the king of the tribal people of the five valleys in Wuling during the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. During the Battle of Xiaoting between the warlords Liu Bei and Sun Quan, Shamoke led his troops to support Liu and was granted an official post by Liu...
and died from his wound later. The time and cause of his death are not mentioned in his official biography in Records of Three KingdomsRecords of Three KingdomsRecords of Three Kingdoms , is regarded as the official and authoritative historical text on the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history covering the years 184-280 CE. Written by Chen Shou in the 3rd century, the work combines the smaller histories of the rival states of Cao Wei , Shu Han and...
.
- The burning of the Shu camps was described as "burning of the linked camps for 700 liLi (unit)The li is a traditional Chinese unit of distance, which has varied considerably over time but now has a standardized length of 500 meters or half a kilometer...
" (火燒聯營七百里) in the novel. In the battle the camps were not as closely linked as described in fiction, and 700 li is an exaggerated approximation of the distance the fires spread.
- In the novel Zhu RanZhu RanZhu Ran was a military general of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. Despite being a childhood friend of the first emperor of Eastern Wu, Sun Quan, he was never tasked with important position nor assignment before Lü Meng's invasion of southern Jing Province in 219,...
was slain by Zhao YunZhao YunZhao Yun was a military general who lived during the late Han Dynasty and early Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. For most of his career, Zhao served the warlord Liu Bei, playing a part in the establishment of state of Shu Han...
while pursuing Liu Bei during the Shu retreat. Zhao Yun's official biography in Records of Three Kingdoms stated that he was stationed in Jiangzhou (江州) and did not participate in the battle.
- In the novel Pan ZhangPan ZhangPan Zhang was a military general of Eastern Wu during the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. Although an active general with high rank, he was known to desire wealth and treasure, and to dress himself in a gaudy fashion...
, who captured Guan Yu, was killed by Guan Xing. Records of Three Kingdoms did not mention anything about his involvement in the battle, and stated that he served as a civil official in Shu. Pan Zhang's official biography also stated that Pan died of illness.
- In the novel Ma ZhongMa Zhong (Han Dynasty)Ma Zhong was a general serving under the warlord Sun Quan during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. Under Pan Zhang's command, he captured Guan Yu and Guan Ping during Lü Meng's invasion of Jing Province.-In fiction:...
was killed by Mi Fang prior to the battle. In history Mi Fang remained in Wu after his defection and did not return to Shu.
- In the novel Cheng Ji (程畿) committed suicide after being cornered by Wu soldiers during the Shu army's retreat, but Records of Three Kingdoms simply described that he was killed in action.
- In the novel Huang ZhongHuang ZhongHuang Zhong was a military general serving under the warlord Liu Bei during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He was most noted for his victory in the Battle of Mount Dingjun, in which his force routed that of Xiahou Yuan, who was slain during battle...
was killed by an arrow fired by Ma Zhong but his official biography in Records of Three Kingdoms mentioned that he died in 220, about a year before the battle.
- In the novel both Zhuge LiangZhuge LiangZhuge Liang was a chancellor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He is often recognised as the greatest and most accomplished strategist of his era....
and Zhao Yun strongly opposed Liu Bei's decision to go to war with Sun Quan but Records of Three Kingdoms only mentioned Zhao Yun. In the novel Liu Bei sent a map of the deployment of his camps to Zhuge Liang in ChengduChengduChengdu , formerly transliterated Chengtu, is the capital of Sichuan province in Southwest China. It holds sub-provincial administrative status...
, and Zhuge was furious and shocked when he saw the map. He even remarked that the person who suggested to Liu Bei to lay out the camps in that manner ought to be executed.
- In the novel Lu XunLu Xun (Three Kingdoms)Lu Xun was a military general and politician of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. He is best known for defeating Liu Bei's forces at the Battle of Xiaoting in 222.-Early life:...
ventured into Zhuge Liang's Stone Sentinel MazeStone Sentinel MazeThe Stone Sentinel Maze was an array of rocks and boulders thought to be conjured by the Three Kingdoms period strategist Zhuge Liang using the concept of the bagua. The formation was located on Yufu Shore by the Yangtze River near present-day Baidicheng, Chongqing, China, where supposed ruins of...
while pursuing the retreating Shu army. He was trapped inside and eventually Huang ChengyanHuang ChengyanHuang Chengyan was a scholar from Longzhong commandery during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history.Huang's wife was the sister of Lady Cai and Cai Mao...
guided him out. After his escape, Lu Xun acknowledged that he could never better Zhuge Liang in terms of intelligence, and then ordered a withdrawal because he feared that Wei might take advantage of the situation to attack Wu.
Modern references
The battle is featured as a playable stage in Koei's video game series Dynasty WarriorsDynasty Warriors
is a series of tactical action video games created by Omega Force and Koei. The award-winning series is a spin-off of Koei's turn-based strategy Romance of the Three Kingdoms series, based loosely around the Chinese classical novel of the same name. The first game titled Dynasty Warriors,...
, in which it is known as the "Battle of Yi Ling".