Battle of Wisconsin Heights
Encyclopedia
The Battle of Wisconsin Heights was the penultimate engagement of the 1832 Black Hawk War
, fought between the United States state militia and allies, and the Sauk and Fox tribes, led by Black Hawk
. The battle took place in what is now Dane County
, near present-day Sauk City, Wisconsin
. Despite being vastly outnumbered and sustaining heavy casualties, Black Hawk's warriors managed to delay the combined government forces long enough to allow the majority of the Sauk and Fox civilians in the group to escape across the Wisconsin River
. This reprieve was temporary; when the militia finally caught up with the fleeing band it resulted in the Bad Axe
massacre at the mouth of the Bad Axe River
.
of Indiana Territory
and a group of Sauk and Fox leaders regarding land settlement, the Sauk and Fox tribes vacated their lands in Illinois
and moved west of the Mississippi
in 1828. However, Sauk Black Hawk and others disputed the treaty, claiming that the full tribal councils had not been consulted, nor did those representing the tribes have authorization to cede lands. Angered by the loss of his birthplace, between 1830–1831 Black Hawk led a number of incursions across the Mississippi River
, but was persuaded to return west each time without bloodshed. In April 1832, encouraged by promises of alliance with other tribes and the British, he again moved his so-called "British Band" of around 1000 warriors and non-combatants into Illinois. Finding no allies, he attempted to return to Iowa
but events overtook him and led to the Battle of Stillman's Run
. A number of other engagements followed, and the militias of Michigan Territory
and Illinois were mobilized to hunt down Black Hawk's band.
After an inconclusive skirmish in late June at Kellogg's Grove, Black Hawk and his band fled the approaching militia through Wisconsin. They had passed through what are now Beloit
and Janesville
, then followed the Rock River
toward Horicon Marsh, where they headed west toward the Four Lakes region (near modern-day Madison
). The band camped for the night near Pheasant Branch.
and James D. Henry
pursued the band up the Rock River, engaging in minor skirmishes along the way. The militia marched 25 miles (40.2 km) from Four Lakes the day of the battle, discovering the body of a dead Native American
along the way, in whose pouch they found the watch of George Force, a lieutenant who was killed in an attack at Fort Blue Mounds on June 20. Ahead of the main party of militia, a small band of U.S. allied Ho-Chunk warriors had been sent ahead to scout the area with Pierre Pauquette, a trader from Portage, Wisconsin
. Rumors that Black Hawk's band was at Lake Koshkonong
persisted and Dodge and his men attempted to intercept Black Hawk there. Although Black Hawk's band had already moved on by the time the militia arrived at the lake, they found evidence of his presence and picked up his trail again, continuing their pursuit toward the Wisconsin River
.
Unable to remain in one place long enough to receive provisions, Black Hawk's group were in poor health and some of them starved to death
on the road. Black Hawk stated in his account of the battle that at this point in the war he had every intention of escaping with his people back across the Mississippi River
, but on encountering the large U.S. force at Wisconsin Heights he was left with no choice but to fight. His intention was to allow the non-combatants in his band to escape across the Wisconsin River.
, in Dane County, near Sauk City
, Wisconsin
. As the militia approached the battleground, warriors appeared on the surrounding hillsides, attempting to divert their attention. According to Dodge's account, before the militia met the main body of Black Hawk's band, three U.S. scouts crossed a small band of Sauk or Fox warriors and pursued them to within a mile of their camp. Scouts also killed two Sauk warriors before the real battle began.
The scouts who had pursued the three Sauk back toward their camp returned when warriors from the camp pursued them on horseback. Dodge dismounted his troops and ordered his men to advance to higher ground. The band of warriors, under Black Hawk, moved toward the militia; when they were within 30 yards (27.4 m) the militia and its allies opened fire. Black Hawk ordered his men to "stand their ground, and never yield it to the enemy." Black Hawk's resolve saved the lives of the bulk of Sauk and Fox present that day at Wisconsin Heights; the warriors fought with the militia while the majority of the civilians escaped, via rafts, across the Wisconsin River.
In the first volley of the battle, one of Black Hawk's warriors was killed instantly and one or two others wounded. Black hawk's warriors returned fire as they withdrew-straight into the charging militia. Several Americans were killed. Dodge and a Major Ewing came upon the battlefield at Wisconsin Heights
first and captured an elevated area that later acquired the name "Militia Ridge." The militia occupied a solid position as General Henry arrived, accompanied by three regiments of mounted Illinois Militia. Henry formed his men into a right angle firing line and exchanged gunfire with Black Hawk's men for around 30 minutes. A Dodge-led bayonet
charge ended the battle, sending the remaining warriors scattering-to be pursued by milti-several of whom were killed. The troops did not pursue Black Hawk, Dodge stated, "after consulting with Genl. Henry it was agreed to defer a further attack on the enemy until the next morning."
Dodge noted the number of Sauk dead at 40, possibly more; he reported that Ho-Chunk scouts and militia men took at least that number of scalps after the battle. U.S. allied Ho-Chunk
, during the night following the battle, scalped
another 11 Sauk who had been killed by the militia, and Dodge had seen Sauk wounded being carried from the battlefield during the fighting. Dodge's forces suffered one dead and 8 wounded, of whom one was injured during the march to Wisconsin Heights, before the battle.
, had attempted from the knoll on which the band had taken refuge to explain to the militia officers that his group wanted only to end the fighting and go back across the Mississippi River. In a "loud shrill voice" he delivered a conciliatory speech in his native Ho-Chunk language, assuming Pauquette and his band of Ho-Chunk guides were still with the militia. However, the U.S. troops did not understand him, because their Ho-Chunk allies had already departed the battlefield.
The one militia man killed in battle, Thomas Jefferson Short, was later buried somewhere on the hill where the battle occurred. The battle was devastating for Black Hawk and his band, despite the fact that much of his band escaped across the Wisconsin River; casualty estimates were as high as 70 dead Sauk and Fox, including those killed in action and those drowned. Even so, at least one source called the battle, along with Stillman's Run
, one of Black Hawk's major military triumphs.
The early 20th-century book Wisconsin in Three Centuries was already calling the battle a "massacre" in 1906. Specifically, it cited an incident in which captured warriors and civilians from Black Hawk's band were slaughtered by a group of 300 Menominee
, who had aligned with the white militia. In addition, as many were drowned trying to cross the Wisconsin as were killed and captured during the battle.
The militia regrouped at Blue Mounds Fort
and picked up Black Hawk's trail again on July 28 near Spring Green, Wisconsin
. When they finally caught up with Black Hawk's "British Band
" it would lead to the decisive clash of the war at Bad Axe
. At the mouth of the Bad Axe River
, hundreds of men, women and children would be killed by pursuing soldiers, their Indian allies, and a U.S. gunboat
.
The site of the Battle of Wisconsin Heights is preserved
in northwestern Dane County, two miles (3 km) southeast of present-day Sauk City. It is the only intact battle site from the Indian Wars
found in the U.S. Midwest
. The Wisconsin Heights Battlefield
was listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places
on January 31, 2002.
Black Hawk War
The Black Hawk War was a brief conflict fought in 1832 between the United States and Native Americans headed by Black Hawk, a Sauk leader. The war erupted soon after Black Hawk and a group of Sauks, Meskwakis, and Kickapoos known as the "British Band" crossed the Mississippi River into the U.S....
, fought between the United States state militia and allies, and the Sauk and Fox tribes, led by Black Hawk
Black Hawk (chief)
Black Hawk was a leader and warrior of the Sauk American Indian tribe in what is now the United States. Although he had inherited an important historic medicine bundle, he was not one of the Sauk's hereditary civil chiefs...
. The battle took place in what is now Dane County
Dane County, Wisconsin
As of the census of 2000, there were 426,526 people, 173,484 households, and 100,794 families residing in the county. The population density was 355 people per square mile . There were 180,398 housing units at an average density of 150 per square mile...
, near present-day Sauk City, Wisconsin
Sauk City, Wisconsin
Sauk City is a village in Sauk County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 3,109 at the 2000 census. The first incorporated village in the state, the community was founded by Agoston Haraszthy and his business partner, Robert Bryant...
. Despite being vastly outnumbered and sustaining heavy casualties, Black Hawk's warriors managed to delay the combined government forces long enough to allow the majority of the Sauk and Fox civilians in the group to escape across the Wisconsin River
Wisconsin River
-External links:* * * , Wisconsin Historical Society* * * *...
. This reprieve was temporary; when the militia finally caught up with the fleeing band it resulted in the Bad Axe
Battle of Bad Axe
The Battle of Bad Axe, also known as the Bad Axe Massacre, occurred 1–2 August 1832, between Sauk and Fox Indians and United States Army regulars and militia. This final battle of the Black Hawk War took place near present-day Victory, Wisconsin in the United States...
massacre at the mouth of the Bad Axe River
Bad Axe River
The Bad Axe River is a tributary of the Mississippi River in southwestern Wisconsin in the United States. "Bad axe" is a translation from the French, "la mauvaise hache", but the origin of the name is unknown. The river's mouth at the Mississippi was the site of the Battle of Bad Axe, an 1832 U.S...
.
Background
As a consequence of an 1804 treaty between the GovernorGovernor
A governor is a governing official, usually the executive of a non-sovereign level of government, ranking under the head of state...
of Indiana Territory
Indiana Territory
The Territory of Indiana was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from July 4, 1800, until November 7, 1816, when the southern portion of the territory was admitted to the Union as the state of Indiana....
and a group of Sauk and Fox leaders regarding land settlement, the Sauk and Fox tribes vacated their lands in Illinois
Illinois
Illinois is the fifth-most populous state of the United States of America, and is often noted for being a microcosm of the entire country. With Chicago in the northeast, small industrial cities and great agricultural productivity in central and northern Illinois, and natural resources like coal,...
and moved west of the Mississippi
Mississippi
Mississippi is a U.S. state located in the Southern United States. Jackson is the state capital and largest city. The name of the state derives from the Mississippi River, which flows along its western boundary, whose name comes from the Ojibwe word misi-ziibi...
in 1828. However, Sauk Black Hawk and others disputed the treaty, claiming that the full tribal councils had not been consulted, nor did those representing the tribes have authorization to cede lands. Angered by the loss of his birthplace, between 1830–1831 Black Hawk led a number of incursions across the Mississippi River
Mississippi River
The Mississippi River is the largest river system in North America. Flowing entirely in the United States, this river rises in western Minnesota and meanders slowly southwards for to the Mississippi River Delta at the Gulf of Mexico. With its many tributaries, the Mississippi's watershed drains...
, but was persuaded to return west each time without bloodshed. In April 1832, encouraged by promises of alliance with other tribes and the British, he again moved his so-called "British Band" of around 1000 warriors and non-combatants into Illinois. Finding no allies, he attempted to return to Iowa
Iowa
Iowa is a state located in the Midwestern United States, an area often referred to as the "American Heartland". It derives its name from the Ioway people, one of the many American Indian tribes that occupied the state at the time of European exploration. Iowa was a part of the French colony of New...
but events overtook him and led to the Battle of Stillman's Run
Battle of Stillman's Run
The Battle of Stillman's Run, also known as the Battle of Sycamore Creek or the Battle of Old Man's Creek, occurred on May 14, 1832. The battle was named for Major Isaiah Stillman and his detachment of 275 Illinois militia which fled in a panic from a large number of Sauk warriors. According to...
. A number of other engagements followed, and the militias of Michigan Territory
Michigan Territory
The Territory of Michigan was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from June 30, 1805, until January 26, 1837, when the final extent of the territory was admitted to the Union as the State of Michigan...
and Illinois were mobilized to hunt down Black Hawk's band.
After an inconclusive skirmish in late June at Kellogg's Grove, Black Hawk and his band fled the approaching militia through Wisconsin. They had passed through what are now Beloit
Beloit, Wisconsin
Beloit is a city in Rock County, Wisconsin, United States. As of the 2010 census, Beloit had a population of 36,966. The greater Beloit area is home to more than 91,000 residents.-Claim to fame:...
and Janesville
Janesville, Wisconsin
Janesville is a city in southern Wisconsin, United States. It is the county seat of Rock County and the principal municipality of the Janesville, Wisconsin Metropolitan Statistical Area. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 62,998.-History:...
, then followed the Rock River
Rock River (Illinois)
The Rock River is a tributary of the Mississippi River, approximately long, in the U.S. states of Wisconsin and Illinois. It rises in southeast Wisconsin, in the Theresa Marsh near Theresa, Wisconsin in northeast Dodge County, Wisconsin approximately south of Fond du Lac, Wisconsin...
toward Horicon Marsh, where they headed west toward the Four Lakes region (near modern-day Madison
Madison, Wisconsin
Madison is the capital of the U.S. state of Wisconsin and the county seat of Dane County. It is also home to the University of Wisconsin–Madison....
). The band camped for the night near Pheasant Branch.
Prelude
The U.S. force of 600-750 militia men had picked up Black Hawk's trail following the Battle of Pecatonica. Colonel Henry DodgeHenry Dodge
Henry Dodge was a Democratic member of the U.S. House of Representatives and U.S. Senate, Territorial Governor of Wisconsin and a veteran of the Black Hawk War. His son was Augustus C. Dodge with whom he served in the U.S. Senate, the first, and so far only, father-son pair to serve concurrently....
and James D. Henry
James D. Henry
James D. Henry was a militia officer from the U.S. state of Illinois who rose to the rank of general during the Black Hawk War. Henry was born in Pennsylvania in 1797, and moved to Edwardsville, Illinois in 1822. In 1825, while living in Edwardsville, he was indicted with two other men for the...
pursued the band up the Rock River, engaging in minor skirmishes along the way. The militia marched 25 miles (40.2 km) from Four Lakes the day of the battle, discovering the body of a dead Native American
Native Americans in the United States
Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the present-day continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are composed of numerous, distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
along the way, in whose pouch they found the watch of George Force, a lieutenant who was killed in an attack at Fort Blue Mounds on June 20. Ahead of the main party of militia, a small band of U.S. allied Ho-Chunk warriors had been sent ahead to scout the area with Pierre Pauquette, a trader from Portage, Wisconsin
Portage, Wisconsin
Portage is a city in and the county seat of Columbia County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 10,662 at the 2010 census making it the largest city in Columbia County...
. Rumors that Black Hawk's band was at Lake Koshkonong
Lake Koshkonong
Lake Koshkonong is a reservoir in southern Wisconsin. It lies along the Rock River, . down-river from Fort Atkinson, primarily in southwestern Jefferson County, although small portions of the lake extend into southeastern Dane and northern Rock counties....
persisted and Dodge and his men attempted to intercept Black Hawk there. Although Black Hawk's band had already moved on by the time the militia arrived at the lake, they found evidence of his presence and picked up his trail again, continuing their pursuit toward the Wisconsin River
Wisconsin River
-External links:* * * , Wisconsin Historical Society* * * *...
.
Map of Black Hawk War sites Battle (with name)  Fort / settlement  Native villageSymbols are wikilinked to article |
Unable to remain in one place long enough to receive provisions, Black Hawk's group were in poor health and some of them starved to death
Starvation
Starvation is a severe deficiency in caloric energy, nutrient and vitamin intake. It is the most extreme form of malnutrition. In humans, prolonged starvation can cause permanent organ damage and eventually, death...
on the road. Black Hawk stated in his account of the battle that at this point in the war he had every intention of escaping with his people back across the Mississippi River
Mississippi River
The Mississippi River is the largest river system in North America. Flowing entirely in the United States, this river rises in western Minnesota and meanders slowly southwards for to the Mississippi River Delta at the Gulf of Mexico. With its many tributaries, the Mississippi's watershed drains...
, but on encountering the large U.S. force at Wisconsin Heights he was left with no choice but to fight. His intention was to allow the non-combatants in his band to escape across the Wisconsin River.
Battle
On July 21, 1832, the militia caught up with Black Hawk's band as they attempted to cross the Wisconsin River, near present-day RoxburyRoxbury, Wisconsin
Roxbury is a town in Dane County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 1,700 at the 2000 census. The unincorporated community of Roxbury is located in the town.-History:Roxbury has been called "Dane County’s most historic township"...
, in Dane County, near Sauk City
Sauk City, Wisconsin
Sauk City is a village in Sauk County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 3,109 at the 2000 census. The first incorporated village in the state, the community was founded by Agoston Haraszthy and his business partner, Robert Bryant...
, Wisconsin
Wisconsin
Wisconsin is a U.S. state located in the north-central United States and is part of the Midwest. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, and Lake Superior to the north. Wisconsin's capital is...
. As the militia approached the battleground, warriors appeared on the surrounding hillsides, attempting to divert their attention. According to Dodge's account, before the militia met the main body of Black Hawk's band, three U.S. scouts crossed a small band of Sauk or Fox warriors and pursued them to within a mile of their camp. Scouts also killed two Sauk warriors before the real battle began.
The scouts who had pursued the three Sauk back toward their camp returned when warriors from the camp pursued them on horseback. Dodge dismounted his troops and ordered his men to advance to higher ground. The band of warriors, under Black Hawk, moved toward the militia; when they were within 30 yards (27.4 m) the militia and its allies opened fire. Black Hawk ordered his men to "stand their ground, and never yield it to the enemy." Black Hawk's resolve saved the lives of the bulk of Sauk and Fox present that day at Wisconsin Heights; the warriors fought with the militia while the majority of the civilians escaped, via rafts, across the Wisconsin River.
In the first volley of the battle, one of Black Hawk's warriors was killed instantly and one or two others wounded. Black hawk's warriors returned fire as they withdrew-straight into the charging militia. Several Americans were killed. Dodge and a Major Ewing came upon the battlefield at Wisconsin Heights
Wisconsin Heights Battlefield
Wisconsin Heights Battlefield is an area in Dane County, Wisconsin where the penultimate battle of the 1832 Black Hawk War occurred. The conflict was fought between the Illinois and Michigan Territory militias and Sauk chief Black Hawk and his band of warriors. Though the area is most significant...
first and captured an elevated area that later acquired the name "Militia Ridge." The militia occupied a solid position as General Henry arrived, accompanied by three regiments of mounted Illinois Militia. Henry formed his men into a right angle firing line and exchanged gunfire with Black Hawk's men for around 30 minutes. A Dodge-led bayonet
Bayonet
A bayonet is a knife, dagger, sword, or spike-shaped weapon designed to fit in, on, over or underneath the muzzle of a rifle, musket or similar weapon, effectively turning the gun into a spear...
charge ended the battle, sending the remaining warriors scattering-to be pursued by milti-several of whom were killed. The troops did not pursue Black Hawk, Dodge stated, "after consulting with Genl. Henry it was agreed to defer a further attack on the enemy until the next morning."
Ho-Chunk
The Ho-Chunk, also known as Winnebago, are a tribe of Native Americans, native to what is now Wisconsin and Illinois. There are two federally recognized Ho-Chunk tribes, the Ho-Chunk Nation of Wisconsin and Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska....
, during the night following the battle, scalped
Scalping
Scalping is the act of removing another person's scalp or a portion of their scalp, either from a dead body or from a living person. The initial purpose of scalping was to provide a trophy of battle or portable proof of a combatant's prowess in war...
another 11 Sauk who had been killed by the militia, and Dodge had seen Sauk wounded being carried from the battlefield during the fighting. Dodge's forces suffered one dead and 8 wounded, of whom one was injured during the march to Wisconsin Heights, before the battle.
Aftermath
The U.S. militia decided to wait until the following day to pursue Black Hawk. To their surprise, when morning arrived, their enemy had disappeared. Shortly before dawn one of the leaders accompanying Black Hawk, a Sauk chieftain named NeapopeNeapope
Neapope was a spiritual leader of the Sauk tribe and advisor to Black Hawk during the Black Hawk War.-Biography:...
, had attempted from the knoll on which the band had taken refuge to explain to the militia officers that his group wanted only to end the fighting and go back across the Mississippi River. In a "loud shrill voice" he delivered a conciliatory speech in his native Ho-Chunk language, assuming Pauquette and his band of Ho-Chunk guides were still with the militia. However, the U.S. troops did not understand him, because their Ho-Chunk allies had already departed the battlefield.
The one militia man killed in battle, Thomas Jefferson Short, was later buried somewhere on the hill where the battle occurred. The battle was devastating for Black Hawk and his band, despite the fact that much of his band escaped across the Wisconsin River; casualty estimates were as high as 70 dead Sauk and Fox, including those killed in action and those drowned. Even so, at least one source called the battle, along with Stillman's Run
Battle of Stillman's Run
The Battle of Stillman's Run, also known as the Battle of Sycamore Creek or the Battle of Old Man's Creek, occurred on May 14, 1832. The battle was named for Major Isaiah Stillman and his detachment of 275 Illinois militia which fled in a panic from a large number of Sauk warriors. According to...
, one of Black Hawk's major military triumphs.
The early 20th-century book Wisconsin in Three Centuries was already calling the battle a "massacre" in 1906. Specifically, it cited an incident in which captured warriors and civilians from Black Hawk's band were slaughtered by a group of 300 Menominee
Menominee
Some placenames use other spellings, see also Menomonee and Menomonie.The Menominee are a nation of Native Americans living in Wisconsin. The Menominee, along with the Ho-Chunk, are the only tribes that are indigenous to what is now Wisconsin...
, who had aligned with the white militia. In addition, as many were drowned trying to cross the Wisconsin as were killed and captured during the battle.
The militia regrouped at Blue Mounds Fort
Blue Mounds Fort
Fort Blue Mounds, also known as Blue Mounds Fort, was located in Blue Mounds, Dane County, Wisconsin, USA.-History:The settlement of Blue Mounds was founded in 1828 by Ebenezer Brigham on the south slope of the eastern mound of the Blue Mounds...
and picked up Black Hawk's trail again on July 28 near Spring Green, Wisconsin
Spring Green, Wisconsin
Spring Green is a village in Sauk County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 1,444 at the 2000 census. The village is located within the Town of Spring Green.-Geography:Spring Green is located at ....
. When they finally caught up with Black Hawk's "British Band
British Band
The British Band was a group of Native Americans which fought against Illinois and Michigan Territory militia units during the 1832 Black Hawk War. The band was composed of about 1,500 men, women, and children from the Sauk, Meskwaki, Fox, Kickapoo, Potawatomi, Ho-Chunk, and Ottawa nations;...
" it would lead to the decisive clash of the war at Bad Axe
Battle of Bad Axe
The Battle of Bad Axe, also known as the Bad Axe Massacre, occurred 1–2 August 1832, between Sauk and Fox Indians and United States Army regulars and militia. This final battle of the Black Hawk War took place near present-day Victory, Wisconsin in the United States...
. At the mouth of the Bad Axe River
Bad Axe River
The Bad Axe River is a tributary of the Mississippi River in southwestern Wisconsin in the United States. "Bad axe" is a translation from the French, "la mauvaise hache", but the origin of the name is unknown. The river's mouth at the Mississippi was the site of the Battle of Bad Axe, an 1832 U.S...
, hundreds of men, women and children would be killed by pursuing soldiers, their Indian allies, and a U.S. gunboat
Gunboat
A gunboat is a naval watercraft designed for the express purpose of carrying one or more guns to bombard coastal targets, as opposed to those military craft designed for naval warfare, or for ferrying troops or supplies.-History:...
.
The site of the Battle of Wisconsin Heights is preserved
Historic preservation
Historic preservation is an endeavor that seeks to preserve, conserve and protect buildings, objects, landscapes or other artifacts of historical significance...
in northwestern Dane County, two miles (3 km) southeast of present-day Sauk City. It is the only intact battle site from the Indian Wars
Indian Wars
American Indian Wars is the name used in the United States to describe a series of conflicts between American settlers or the federal government and the native peoples of North America before and after the American Revolutionary War. The wars resulted from the arrival of European colonizers who...
found in the U.S. Midwest
Midwestern United States
The Midwestern United States is one of the four U.S. geographic regions defined by the United States Census Bureau, providing an official definition of the American Midwest....
. The Wisconsin Heights Battlefield
Wisconsin Heights Battlefield
Wisconsin Heights Battlefield is an area in Dane County, Wisconsin where the penultimate battle of the 1832 Black Hawk War occurred. The conflict was fought between the Illinois and Michigan Territory militias and Sauk chief Black Hawk and his band of warriors. Though the area is most significant...
was listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places
National Register of Historic Places
The National Register of Historic Places is the United States government's official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation...
on January 31, 2002.
See also
- Sixty Years' WarSixty Years' WarThe Sixty Years' War was a military struggle for control of the Great Lakes region in North America, encompassing a number of wars over several generations. The term Sixty Years' War is not widely known, and is used primarily by academic historians who specialize in various aspects of the conflict...
- Black Hawk PurchaseBlack Hawk PurchaseThe Black Hawk Purchase, sometimes called the Forty-Mile Strip or Scott's Purchase, was a land acquisition made in what is now Iowa by the United States federal government. The land, originally owned by the Sauk, Meskwaki , and Ho-Chunk Native American people, was acquired by treaty following...
- Indian removalIndian RemovalIndian removal was a nineteenth century policy of the government of the United States to relocate Native American tribes living east of the Mississippi River to lands west of the river...
- Indian termination policyIndian termination policyIndian termination was the policy of the United States from the mid-1940s to the mid-1960s. The belief was that Native Americans would be better off if assimilated as individuals into mainstream American society. To that end, Congress proposed to end the special relationship between tribes and the...