Battle of Marston Moor
Encyclopedia
The Battle of Marston Moor was fought on 2 July 1644, during the First English Civil War
of 1642–1646. The combined forces of the Scottish Covenanters under the Earl of Leven
and the English Parliamentarians
under Lord Fairfax
and the Earl of Manchester
defeated the Royalists
commanded by Prince Rupert of the Rhine
and the Marquess of Newcastle
.
During the summer of 1644, the Covenanters and Parliamentarians had been besieging York
, which was defended by the Marquess of Newcastle. Prince Rupert had gathered an army which marched through the northwest of England to relieve the city, gathering fresh recruits on the way. The convergence of these forces made the ensuing battle the largest of the Civil Wars.
On 1 July, Rupert outmanoeuvred the Scots and Parliamentarians to relieve the city. The next day, he sought battle with them even though he was outnumbered. He was dissuaded from attacking immediately and during the day both sides gathered their full strength on Marston Moor, an expanse of wild meadow
west of York. Towards evening, the Scots and Parliamentarians themselves launched a surprise attack. After a confused fight lasting two hours, Parliamentarian cavalry under Oliver Cromwell
routed the Royalist cavalry from the field and annihilated the remaining Royalist infantry.
After their defeat the Royalists effectively abandoned the north of England. They lost much of the manpower from the Northern Counties of England which were strongly Royalist in sympathy, and access to the continent of Europe through the ports on the North Sea
coast. Although they partially retrieved their fortunes with victories later in the year in the south of England, the loss of the North was to prove a fatal handicap the next year, when they tried unsuccessfully to link up with the Scottish Royalists under Montrose
.
, the Royalists had the advantage in numbers and local support, except in parts of Lancashire
and the West Riding of Yorkshire
, where the Parliamentarians had support from the clothing-manufacturing towns which "naturally maligned the gentry". On 30 June 1643, the Royalists commanded by the Marquess of Newcastle
defeated the Parliamentarian army of Lord Fairfax
at the Battle of Adwalton Moor
near Bradford
. Fairfax and his son, Sir Thomas Fairfax
, fled with their remaining forces to the port of Hull
, which was held for Parliament.
Newcastle sent some of his army south into Lincolnshire
, as part of a planned "three-pronged" advance on London, but was forced to besiege Hull
with most of his forces. The siege failed, as the Parliamentarian navy could supply and reinforce the port and the garrison flooded wide areas around the city, while the Royalist detachments sent into Lincolnshire were defeated at the Battle of Winceby
.
In late 1643, the English Civil War widened. King Charles I
negotiated a "cessation" in Ireland, which allowed him to reinforce his armies with English regiments which had been sent to Ireland following the Irish Rebellion of 1641
, but Parliament took an even greater step by signing the Solemn League and Covenant
, sealing an alliance with the Scottish Covenanters.
Early in 1644, a Covenanter army under the Earl of Leven
invaded the north of England on behalf of Parliament. The Marquess of Newcastle was forced to divide his army, leaving a detachment under Sir John Belasyse
to watch the Parliamentarians under Lord Fairfax in Hull, while he led his main body north to confront Leven.
. Meanwhile, a Parliamentarian cavalry force under Sir Thomas Fairfax, which had been campaigning in Cheshire
and Lancashire during the winter, crossed the Pennines and entered the West Riding of Yorkshire. To prevent Sir Thomas rejoining Lord Fairfax in Hull, Belasyse occupied the town of Selby
which lay between them. On 11 April, Sir Thomas Fairfax's force, reinforced by infantry under Sir John Meldrum
, stormed Selby
, capturing Belasyse and most of his force.
Hearing the news, Newcastle realised that the city of York was threatened. York was the principal city and bastion of Royalist power in the north of England, and its loss would be a serious blow to the Royalist cause. He hastily retreated there to forestall the Fairfaxes. Leven left a detachment to mask the Royalist garrison of Newcastle upon Tyne, and followed Newcastle's army with his main body. On 22 April, Leven and the Fairfaxes joined forces at Wetherby
, about 14 miles (22.5 km) west of York. Together, they began the Siege of York
. Initially, the siege was a rather loose blockade as the Scots and Parliamentarians concentrated on capturing smaller Royalist garrisons which threatened their communications with Hull. On 3 June, they were reinforced by the Parliamentarian army of the Eastern Association
under the Earl of Manchester
. York was now completely encircled and siege operations began in earnest. Leven was accepted as Commander in Chief of the three combined allied armies before York (referred to by Parliament as the "Army of Both Kingdoms"). It was politic to make the Scots pre-eminent in the north and the Scots were the largest single contingent in the Army, but Leven was also a respected veteran of the Thirty Years' War
.
News of the siege soon reached Oxford
, where King Charles had his wartime capital. From 24 April to 5 May, he held a council of war
attended by his nephew and most renowned field commander, Prince Rupert
. It was settled that while Charles attempted to play for time in Oxford, Rupert would relieve York.
Rupert set out from Shrewsbury
with a small force on 16 May. His first moves were intended to gather reinforcements along the way to bolster his army, and secure Lancashire for the troops heading over from Ireland for the Royalist cause. He assumed the direction of a small Royalist army, based on Chester
and commanded by Lord John Byron
, raising his force to 2,000 horse and 6,000 foot. Having forced a crossing of the River Mersey
at Stockport
, he stormed Bolton
, allegedly killing 1,600 of the Parliamentarian defenders and citizens. Resting at Bury
nearby, Rupert was joined by the Marquess of Newcastle's cavalry under Lord George Goring
, which had broken out of York early in the siege, with a small contingent from Derbyshire
, and several regiments which were being freshly raised in Lancashire by the Earl of Derby
. Having sidestepped the Parliamentarian stronghold
of Manchester
, Prince Rupert approached Liverpool
on 6 June and wrested control of the city from Parliament after a five-day siege.
Rupert now hesitated, unsure whether to proceed to the relief of York or remain to consolidate the Royalist hold on Lancashire, securing more reinforcements in the process. He also distrusted some of the members of Charles’s council of war and was wary of being so far from the King's side. On 16 June, he received a dispatch from the King which contained troubling news. The King's advisors on the council of war had overturned Rupert’s defensive policies, sending the garrisons of Reading
and Abingdon
on an offensive in the West Country. This had left Oxford exposed to a sudden threat from the Parliamentarian armies commanded by the Earl of Essex
and Sir William Waller
and forced the King to leave the city in haste and head to Worcester
, where he was still in danger. Together with this unfortunate news, the letter contained some ambiguous orders regarding Rupert's northern offensive and future plans:
Rupert understood the letter to be an order both to relieve York and defeat the allied army before heading south once more to aid the King. By this time Rupert's army numbered nearly 14,000. He set out from Liverpool to Preston, which surrendered without a fight. From there he proceeded via Clitheroe
and crossed the Pennines to Skipton
, where he paused for three days from 26 June to 28 June to "fix arms" and await some final reinforcements from Cumberland
and Westmoreland
. He arrived at the Royalist garrison at Knaresborough Castle
14 miles (22.5 km) northwest of York on 30 June.
could ward off this threat, but they learned that these forces could not intervene in time. The allied armies around York were separated from each other by rivers, and if Rupert attacked them in their siege lines he could destroy any one army before the other two could intervene. Therefore they abandoned the siege on the night of 30 June, and concentrated their forces near the village of Hessay
before taking position on Marston Moor, where they blocked Rupert's expected direct march to York (along the old Roman road named Ermine Street
, the modern A59), and could easily move to their left to prevent Rupert making any move to the south via Wetherby
.
Early on 1 July, some Royalist cavalry advanced from Knaresborough and appeared on the Moor, and the allies prepared for battle. However, Rupert had made a 22 miles (35.4 km) flank march to the northeast with his main body, crossing the River Ure
at Boroughbridge
and the River Swale
at Thornton Bridge. These two rivers merge to form the River Ouse
, which Rupert had successfully put between himself and the allied armies. Later that day, his forces defeated the Earl of Manchester's dragoons, who had been left to guard a bridge of boats
across the Ouse at the village of Poppleton
a few miles north of York. This had been the only crossing available to the allies above another bridge of boats at Acaster Malbis
5 miles (8 km) south of York, and its capture prevented the allies crossing the Ouse to engage Rupert.
More of Rupert's cavalry arrived at York to gain touch with the garrison. With York definitely relieved, Newcastle sent Rupert a fulsome letter of welcome and congratulations. Rupert replied, not in person but through Goring, with a peremptory demand for Newcastle to march his forces to Rupert's assistance on the following morning.
and Cawood
, where they could both protect their own supply lines from Hull, and also block any move south by Rupert on either side of the Ouse. The Parliamentarian foot (infantry), ordnance and baggage set off early on 2 July, leaving the cavalry and dragoons, commanded by Sir Thomas Fairfax, as rearguard. At about 9 am, the allied generals learned that Rupert's army had crossed the captured bridge of boats at Poppleton, and was advancing onto Marston Moor. The Scottish and Parliamentarian foot, some of whom had already reached Tadcaster, were hastily recalled.
Around midday, Rupert was joined on Marston Moor by Newcastle, accompanied by a mounted troop of "Gentleman Volunteers" only. Rupert greeted him by saying, "My Lord, I wish you had come sooner with your forces, but I hope we shall yet have a glorious day." Newcastle was strongly opposed to a pitched battle
. He counselled that the three allied armies, with separate base areas and lines of communication to protect, would eventually separate. He also suggested waiting for a force of 3,000 under Colonel Clavering and collected garrisons amounting to another 2,000 to join the Royalist army. Rupert was adamant that the King's letter (which he never showed to Newcastle) was a command to engage and defeat the enemy immediately. Furthermore, Rupert wished to compensate for the Royalists' numerical inferiority by catching the enemy unawares, and before further Parliamentarian reinforcements could increase their superiority in numbers.
However, Newcastle's soldiers in York had refused to fight unless given their delayed payment. A number were also absent, pillaging the abandoned allied siege works and encampments outside the city, and had yet to return. Rupert's own infantry were exhausted from their long march on the previous day. Rupert therefore did not attack, and the odds against him lengthened as the day wore on and the Scots and Parliamentarians returned from their aborted move south and took position. There were brief cannonades and skirmishes, but neither side attacked.
At about 4:00 pm, the contingent from York belatedly arrived, accompanied by Newcastle's Lieutenant General, Lord Eythin
. Rupert and Eythin already knew and disliked each other. Both had fought at the Battle of Vlotho
in 1638, where Rupert had been captured and held prisoner for several years. Rupert blamed Eythin's caution for the defeat on that occasion, while Eythin blamed Rupert's rashness. On the Moor, Eythin criticised Rupert's dispositions as being drawn up too close to the enemy. His main concern was that a fold in the ground (referred to by some eye-witnesses as a "glen") between the ridge on which the allied forces were drawn up and the track between Long Marston and Tockwith concealed the front line of the allied infantry from both view and artillery fire, allowing them to attack suddenly from a comparatively close distance. When Rupert proposed to either attack or move his army back as Eythin suggested, Eythin then pontificated that it was too late in the day for such a move. The Royalist army prepared to settle down for the night, close to the allied armies.
The Covenanters and Parliamentarians occupied Marston Hill, a low feature less than 100 feet (30.5 m) above the surrounding countryside but nevertheless prominent in the flat Vale of York, between the villages of Long Marston and Tockwith. They had the advantage of elevation, but cornfields stretching between the two villages hampered their deployment.
At some point in the day, the Royalists attempted to seize a rabbit warren to the west of the cornfields from where they might enfilade the Parliamentarian position, but they were driven off and the Parliamentarian left wing of horse occupied the ground. The wing was under the command of Manchester's Lieutenant General Oliver Cromwell
. The first two lines consisted of over 3,000 cavalry from the Eastern Association, including Cromwell's own Regiment of Ironsides
. They were deployed in eleven divisions of three or four troops of cavalry each, with 600 "commanded" musketeers deployed as platoons between them. The use of musketeers to disrupt attacking cavalry or dragoons was a common practice in the Swedish army of the Thirty Years' War, and was adopted by both the Parliamentarians and Royalists at Marston Moor. No surviving map or account states who commanded the second line, but Colonel Bartholomew Vermuyden was Manchester's Commissary General, or second in command of the Eastern Association horse. Three regiments of Scots horse, numbering 1,000 and mounted on lighter ponies, formed a third line to Cromwell's rear under Sir David Leslie. Five hundred Scottish dragoons under Colonel Hugh Fraser were deployed on the extreme left.
The centre, under the three generals-in-chief with no overall commander, consisted of over 14,000 foot, with 30 to 40 pieces of artillery. The various regiments had been hastily deployed as they returned to the field and were considerably mixed up, but most of Manchester's infantry under Sergeant Major General Lawrence Crawford
were on the left of the front line, and Lord Fairfax's in the centre. Two Scots brigades each of two regiments, the "Vanguard" of their army, made up the right of the front line under Lieutenant General William Baillie. The second line consisted of four Scots brigades, their "Main Battle" or simply "Battle", under Sergeant Major General James Lumsden
. The weaker third and fourth lines consisted of some of Fairfax's infantry, a single Scots brigade and an incomplete Scottish regiment, and the Earl of Manchester's own Regiment of Foot.
The right wing was commanded by Sir Thomas Fairfax, with John Lambert
as his second in command. He had at least 2,000 horse from Yorkshire and Lancashire, deployed in nine divisions, and 600 musketeers, with three regiments of Scots horse, numbering about 1,000 and commanded by the Earl of Eglinton, to his rear.
, shows the ditch in its present-day alignment. It is generally accepted that the ditch was at least less of an obstacle on the Royalist right.
The Royalist left wing was commanded by Lord Goring. It consisted of 2,100 cavalry, mainly from the Marquess of Newcastle's cavalry, the "Northern Horse", and 500 musketeers. The first line was commanded by Goring and the second by Sir Charles Lucas
.
Their centre was nominally commanded by Eythin. A brigade numbering 1,500 and consisting of Rupert's and Byron's regiments of foot under Colonel Robert Napier of Byron's regiment was deployed at the ditch, at the junction of the right wing and centre. To their left, a forlorn hope
of musketeers lined the ditch. Behind them, the first line and the left wing of the second line were composed of the remaining infantry units of Rupert's army, numbering 5,500, under Rupert's Sergeant-Major General Henry Tillier. The 3,000 infantry from Newcastle's army under Sergeant Major General Francis Mackworth formed the right wing of the second line and an incomplete third line when they arrived, and a brigade of 600 "Northern Horse" under Sir William Blakiston was deployed to their left. There were a total of 14 field guns deployed in the centre. It has been suggested that some at least of Mackworth's infantry had not taken up their assigned positions when the battle began, leaving the right of the Royalist centre understrength.
The right wing was commanded by Lord Byron, with 2,600 horse and 500 musketeers. The second line, which included Prince Rupert's Regiment of Horse but also some comparatively inexperienced regiments, was commanded by Lord Molyneux
, although the experienced but unprincipled Sir John Hurry
apparently acted as Byron's second in command.
Unlike the Scots and Parliamentarians, Rupert retained a reserve of 600 cavalry, including his elite Lifeguard of Horse, under his personal command. This reserve was situated behind the centre.
broke out over the moor.
On the allied left, Crawford's infantry outflanked and drove back Napier's brigade while Cromwell's horse quickly defeated Byron's wing. Though under orders to stand his ground and rely on the ditch and musket fire to slow and disorganize an enemy attack, Byron instead ordered a hasty counter-charge which disordered his own troops and prevented his musketeers and four "drakes" (field guns) attached to Napier's brigade firing without fear of hitting their own cavalry. In the clashes which followed, Byron's front line regiments were put to flight. Cromwell was slightly wounded in the neck, by a pistol ball in most accounts, and briefly left the field to have the wound dressed.
Noting the setback on this flank, Rupert led his reserve towards the right, rallying his own fleeing Regiment of Horse and leading them in a counter-attack. A Parliamentarian officer wrote:
Sir David Leslie's Scots eventually swung the balance for Cromwell, outflanking and defeating the Royalist cavalry. Rupert's right wing and reserve were routed and he himself narrowly avoided capture by hiding in a nearby bean field.
In the centre, Crawford's, Lord Fairfax's and half of Baillie's foot initially succeeded in crossing the ditch, capturing at least three pieces of artillery. On the allied right, Sir Thomas Fairfax's wing fared worse. He later wrote:
Fairfax wrote that his second-in-command, Major-General Lambert, could not get up to him, and so charged in another place. A lane, the present-day Atterwith Lane, crossed the ditch on this flank, and some accounts suggest that several units were easy targets for the Royalist musketeers as they advanced along the lane only four abreast. When a small embankment alongside the ditch at this point was removed in the 1960s, several hundred musket balls were recovered.
When Goring launched a counter-charge, the disorganised Parliamentarians were routed, although some of the Scottish cavalry behind them resisted stoutly for some time. Most of Goring's victorious wing either scattered in pursuit, or fell out to loot the Allied baggage train, but some of them under Sir Charles Lucas wheeled to attack the right flank of the Allied infantry. Meanwhile, some of Newcastle's foot counter-attacked Lord Fairfax's foot in the centre of the allied front line and threw them into confusion. Following up this advantage, Blakiston's brigade of horse (with its numbers probably augmented by a troop of "Gentleman Volunteers" under Newcastle himself) charged the allied centre. Under these assaults in the confusion and the gathering darkness, over half the Scots infantry and all of Fairfax's infantry fled. The Scottish Sergeant-Major General Lumsden stated that "These that ran away shew themselves most baselie." Leven and Lord Fairfax also left the field, believing all was lost. Manchester remained on the battlefield, but effectively commanded only his own Regiment of Foot near the allied rear.
One isolated Scottish brigade which had been at the right of their front line and consisted of the regiments of the Earl of Crawford-Lindsay and Viscount Maitland
stood firm against Lucas, who launched three charges against them. In the third charge, Lucas's horse was killed, and he was taken prisoner. Behind them, Sergeant Major General Lumsden managed to re-form part of the allied centre, using two Scottish brigades which had stood fast. Behind them in turn, the Earl of Manchester's regiment repulsed and scattered Blakiston's brigade of Royalist cavalry.
By now it was nearly fully dark, although the full moon was rising. The countryside for miles around was covered with fugitives from both sides. A messenger from Ireland riding in search of Prince Rupert wrote:
With no general present in command of either side, a drawn battle might have resulted, but Cromwell's disciplined horsemen had rallied behind the Royalist right. Sir Thomas Fairfax, finding himself alone in the midst of Goring's men, removed the "Field Sign
" (a handkerchief or slip of white paper which identified him as a Parliamentarian) from his hat, and made his way to Cromwell's wing to relate the state of affairs on the allied right flank. Cromwell now led his cavalry, with Leslie's Scots horse still in support and Crawford's foot on his right flank, across the battlefield to attack Goring's cavalry.
By this time, Goring's troops were tired and disorganised, and several of his senior officers were prisoners. They nevertheless marched down the hill from the Parliamentarian baggage to occupy roughly the same position which Sir Thomas Fairfax's cavalry had held at the start of the battle, which most contemporary accounts stated to be a disadvantageous position. When Cromwell attacked, Goring's outnumbered troops were driven back. Many of them retired to the "glen", the fold of ground beneath Marston Hill, but refused to take any further part in the battle despite the efforts of officers such as Sir Marmaduke Langdale
and Sir Philip Monckton to rally them. Eventually they obeyed orders to retreat to York late at night.
The triumphant allies meanwhile turned against the remains of the Royalist centre, overrunning successive units and cutting down many fugitives. Finally some of Newcastle's foot, the "Whitecoats", gathered for a last stand in a ditched enclosure. This has been stated to be White Sike Close, in the rear of the Royalists' original position, where some of Newcastle's infantry would have retreated when they found their right flank "in the air" following Byron's and Rupert's defeat. Later research suggests it is more probable that the enclosure was Fox Covert, a mile north of Long Marston on the natural line of retreat towards York. The Whitecoats refused quarter and repulsed constant cavalry charges until infantry and Colonel Hugh Fraser's dragoons were brought up to break their formation. The last 30 survivors finally surrendered.
of the "Whitecoats", and 1,500 captured, including Sir Charles Lucas and Major General Henry Tillier. The Royalists lost all their guns, with many hundreds of weapons and several standards also falling into the hands of the allied forces. The allied generals' dispatch, and other Parliamentarian accounts, stated that 300 of their soldiers were killed.
One of those mortally wounded among the Parliamentarians was Sir Thomas Fairfax's brother, Charles. Another was Cromwell's nephew, Valentine Walton, who was struck by a cannon ball early in the day. Cromwell was present when he died afterwards, and wrote a famous letter to the soldier's father, Cromwell's brother-in-law, also named Valentine Walton
, which briefly described the battle and then informed the father of the son's last words and death.
, allowed only those who were part of the garrison (in effect, only a few officers who had participated in the battle as volunteers) into the city, in case Parliamentarian cavalry entered the city on the heels of the fleeing Royalists. Many fugitives, including wounded, crowded the streets before Micklegate Bar, the gate into the city.
Newcastle, having seen his forces broken and having spent his entire fortune in the Royalist cause, resolved that he would not endure the "laughter of the court". He departed for Scarborough on 3 July and went into exile in Hamburg
, with Eythin and many of his senior officers. Two days after the battle, Rupert rallied 5,000 cavalry and a few hundred infantry whom he mounted on spare horses. He considered that, rather than attempt to restore Royalist fortunes in the north, he was required to return south to rejoin the King. Leaving York by way of Monk Bar on the north east side, he marched back over the Pennines, making a detour to Richmond
to escape interception. Goring, who had accompanied him this far, headed for Scotland to aid the Royalists there under Montrose
. With the departure of Newcastle and Rupert, the Royalists effectively abandoned the north, except for isolated garrisons.
The victorious allies regrouped, although too slowly to intercept Rupert as he left York. Leven had fled to Leeds, nearly 20 miles (32.2 km) from the battlefield, and was greatly surprised to learn of the victory. Once the allied army had reformed, they resumed the siege of York. Under the agreement that no Scottish soldiers were to be garrisoned in the city, the garrison surrendered on honourable terms on 16 July. The allied army soon dispersed. Leven took his troops north to besiege Newcastle upon Tyne and Carlisle, while Manchester's army returned to Lincolnshire
and eventually moved into the south of England to take part in the Second Battle of Newbury
.
Over the next few months the Scots and Parliamentarians slowly eliminated the remaining Royalist garrisons throughout northern England. The Royalist cavalry from the area, the "Northern Horse", continued to fight for King Charles under Sir Marmaduke Langdale, and even made several forays from the south to relieve Royalist garrisons in south Yorkshire, but they became increasingly undisciplined and licentious, turning many former sympathisers away from the Royalist cause.
The defeat at Marston Moor was a serious blow to the Royalist cause. Prince Rupert had been decisively beaten for the first time in the war and lost his reputation for invincibility. He was deeply affected by the defeat, and kept the King's ambiguous dispatch close to him for the remainder of his life. He had suffered an additional blow through the death during the battle of his dog "Boye"
, who had been a constant companion by his side throughout his campaigns. Parliamentarian propaganda made much of this, treating Boye almost as a Devil's familiar
.
By contrast, Oliver Cromwell's reputation as a cavalry commander was firmly established. Despite attempts by his political rivals and military critics such as Denzil Holles
and Major General Lawrence Crawford to belittle the part he played, it was acknowledged that the discipline he had instilled into his troops and his own leadership on the battlefield had been crucial to the victory. Cromwell would later declare that Marston Moor was "an absolute victory obtained by God's blessing". From this moment, he was to exert increasing influence both in the House of Commons and in the Parliamentarian armies in the field.
First English Civil War
The First English Civil War began the series of three wars known as the English Civil War . "The English Civil War" was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations that took place between Parliamentarians and Royalists from 1642 until 1651, and includes the Second English Civil War and...
of 1642–1646. The combined forces of the Scottish Covenanters under the Earl of Leven
Alexander Leslie, 1st Earl of Leven
Alexander Leslie, 1st Earl of Leven was a Scottish soldier in Dutch, Swedish and Scottish service. Born illegitimate and raised as a foster child, he subsequently advanced to the rank of a Dutch captain, a Swedish Field Marshal, and in Scotland became lord general in command of the Covenanters,...
and the English Parliamentarians
Roundhead
"Roundhead" was the nickname given to the supporters of the Parliament during the English Civil War. Also known as Parliamentarians, they fought against King Charles I and his supporters, the Cavaliers , who claimed absolute power and the divine right of kings...
under Lord Fairfax
Ferdinando Fairfax, 2nd Lord Fairfax of Cameron
Ferdinando Fairfax, 2nd Lord Fairfax of Cameron , English parliamentary general.-Early life:He was born in Yorkshire the eldest son of Thomas Fairfax, whom Charles I in 1627 created Lord Fairfax of Cameron in the Peerage of Scotland and received a military education in the Netherlands. Two of his...
and the Earl of Manchester
Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester
Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester KG, KB, FRS was an important commander of Parliamentary forces in the First English Civil War, and for a time Oliver Cromwell's superior.-Life:...
defeated the Royalists
Cavalier
Cavalier was the name used by Parliamentarians for a Royalist supporter of King Charles I and son Charles II during the English Civil War, the Interregnum, and the Restoration...
commanded by Prince Rupert of the Rhine
Prince Rupert of the Rhine
Rupert, Count Palatine of the Rhine, Duke of Bavaria, 1st Duke of Cumberland, 1st Earl of Holderness , commonly called Prince Rupert of the Rhine, KG, FRS was a noted soldier, admiral, scientist, sportsman, colonial governor and amateur artist during the 17th century...
and the Marquess of Newcastle
William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle
William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne KG KB PC was an English polymath and aristocrat, having been a poet, equestrian, playwright, swordsman, politician, architect, diplomat and soldier...
.
During the summer of 1644, the Covenanters and Parliamentarians had been besieging York
Siege of York
The Siege of York in 1644 was a prolonged contest for York during the English Civil War, between the Scottish Covenanter Army and the Parliamentarian Armies of the Northern Association and Eastern Association on the one hand, and the Royalist Army under the Marquess of Newcastle on the other...
, which was defended by the Marquess of Newcastle. Prince Rupert had gathered an army which marched through the northwest of England to relieve the city, gathering fresh recruits on the way. The convergence of these forces made the ensuing battle the largest of the Civil Wars.
On 1 July, Rupert outmanoeuvred the Scots and Parliamentarians to relieve the city. The next day, he sought battle with them even though he was outnumbered. He was dissuaded from attacking immediately and during the day both sides gathered their full strength on Marston Moor, an expanse of wild meadow
Meadow
A meadow is a field vegetated primarily by grass and other non-woody plants . The term is from Old English mædwe. In agriculture a meadow is grassland which is not grazed by domestic livestock but rather allowed to grow unchecked in order to make hay...
west of York. Towards evening, the Scots and Parliamentarians themselves launched a surprise attack. After a confused fight lasting two hours, Parliamentarian cavalry under Oliver Cromwell
Oliver Cromwell
Oliver Cromwell was an English military and political leader who overthrew the English monarchy and temporarily turned England into a republican Commonwealth, and served as Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland....
routed the Royalist cavalry from the field and annihilated the remaining Royalist infantry.
After their defeat the Royalists effectively abandoned the north of England. They lost much of the manpower from the Northern Counties of England which were strongly Royalist in sympathy, and access to the continent of Europe through the ports on the North Sea
North Sea
In the southwest, beyond the Straits of Dover, the North Sea becomes the English Channel connecting to the Atlantic Ocean. In the east, it connects to the Baltic Sea via the Skagerrak and Kattegat, narrow straits that separate Denmark from Norway and Sweden respectively...
coast. Although they partially retrieved their fortunes with victories later in the year in the south of England, the loss of the North was to prove a fatal handicap the next year, when they tried unsuccessfully to link up with the Scottish Royalists under Montrose
James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose
James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose was a Scottish nobleman and soldier, who initially joined the Covenanters in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, but subsequently supported King Charles I as the English Civil War developed...
.
The Civil War in the North
In Northern EnglandNorthern England
Northern England, also known as the North of England, the North or the North Country, is a cultural region of England. It is not an official government region, but rather an informal amalgamation of counties. The southern extent of the region is roughly the River Trent, while the North is bordered...
, the Royalists had the advantage in numbers and local support, except in parts of Lancashire
Lancashire
Lancashire is a non-metropolitan county of historic origin in the North West of England. It takes its name from the city of Lancaster, and is sometimes known as the County of Lancaster. Although Lancaster is still considered to be the county town, Lancashire County Council is based in Preston...
and the West Riding of Yorkshire
West Riding of Yorkshire
The West Riding of Yorkshire is one of the three historic subdivisions of Yorkshire, England. From 1889 to 1974 the administrative county, County of York, West Riding , was based closely on the historic boundaries...
, where the Parliamentarians had support from the clothing-manufacturing towns which "naturally maligned the gentry". On 30 June 1643, the Royalists commanded by the Marquess of Newcastle
William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle
William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne KG KB PC was an English polymath and aristocrat, having been a poet, equestrian, playwright, swordsman, politician, architect, diplomat and soldier...
defeated the Parliamentarian army of Lord Fairfax
Ferdinando Fairfax, 2nd Lord Fairfax of Cameron
Ferdinando Fairfax, 2nd Lord Fairfax of Cameron , English parliamentary general.-Early life:He was born in Yorkshire the eldest son of Thomas Fairfax, whom Charles I in 1627 created Lord Fairfax of Cameron in the Peerage of Scotland and received a military education in the Netherlands. Two of his...
at the Battle of Adwalton Moor
Battle of Adwalton Moor
-The Battlefield:The site of the battle is high ground in Adwalton near Bradford, which is now in an area of rural-urban fringe, . Parts of the site are protected as "green belt" or other types of open space...
near Bradford
Bradford
Bradford lies at the heart of the City of Bradford, a metropolitan borough of West Yorkshire, in Northern England. It is situated in the foothills of the Pennines, west of Leeds, and northwest of Wakefield. Bradford became a municipal borough in 1847, and received its charter as a city in 1897...
. Fairfax and his son, Sir Thomas Fairfax
Thomas Fairfax, 3rd Lord Fairfax of Cameron
Thomas Fairfax, 3rd Lord Fairfax of Cameron was a general and parliamentary commander-in-chief during the English Civil War...
, fled with their remaining forces to the port of Hull
Kingston upon Hull
Kingston upon Hull , usually referred to as Hull, is a city and unitary authority area in the ceremonial county of the East Riding of Yorkshire, England. It stands on the River Hull at its junction with the Humber estuary, 25 miles inland from the North Sea. Hull has a resident population of...
, which was held for Parliament.
Newcastle sent some of his army south into Lincolnshire
Lincolnshire
Lincolnshire is a county in the east of England. It borders Norfolk to the south east, Cambridgeshire to the south, Rutland to the south west, Leicestershire and Nottinghamshire to the west, South Yorkshire to the north west, and the East Riding of Yorkshire to the north. It also borders...
, as part of a planned "three-pronged" advance on London, but was forced to besiege Hull
Siege of Hull (1643)
The unsuccessful second Siege of Hull by the Royalist Earl of Newcastle in 1643 was a victory for Parliament at the high point of the Royalist campaign in the First English Civil War...
with most of his forces. The siege failed, as the Parliamentarian navy could supply and reinforce the port and the garrison flooded wide areas around the city, while the Royalist detachments sent into Lincolnshire were defeated at the Battle of Winceby
Battle of Winceby
The Battle of Winceby took place on 11 October 1643 during the English Civil War near the village of Winceby, Lincolnshire about 4 miles east of Horncastle.-Prelude:...
.
In late 1643, the English Civil War widened. King Charles I
Charles I of England
Charles I was King of England, King of Scotland, and King of Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. Charles engaged in a struggle for power with the Parliament of England, attempting to obtain royal revenue whilst Parliament sought to curb his Royal prerogative which Charles...
negotiated a "cessation" in Ireland, which allowed him to reinforce his armies with English regiments which had been sent to Ireland following the Irish Rebellion of 1641
Irish Rebellion of 1641
The Irish Rebellion of 1641 began as an attempted coup d'état by Irish Catholic gentry, who tried to seize control of the English administration in Ireland to force concessions for the Catholics living under English rule...
, but Parliament took an even greater step by signing the Solemn League and Covenant
Solemn League and Covenant
The Solemn League and Covenant was an agreement between the Scottish Covenanters and the leaders of the English Parliamentarians. It was agreed to in 1643, during the First English Civil War....
, sealing an alliance with the Scottish Covenanters.
Early in 1644, a Covenanter army under the Earl of Leven
Alexander Leslie, 1st Earl of Leven
Alexander Leslie, 1st Earl of Leven was a Scottish soldier in Dutch, Swedish and Scottish service. Born illegitimate and raised as a foster child, he subsequently advanced to the rank of a Dutch captain, a Swedish Field Marshal, and in Scotland became lord general in command of the Covenanters,...
invaded the north of England on behalf of Parliament. The Marquess of Newcastle was forced to divide his army, leaving a detachment under Sir John Belasyse
John Belasyse, 1st Baron Belasyse
John Belasyse, 1st Baron Belasyse PC was an English nobleman, soldier and Member of Parliament, notable for his role during and after the English Civil War.-Early life:...
to watch the Parliamentarians under Lord Fairfax in Hull, while he led his main body north to confront Leven.
Siege of York
During March and early April, the Marquess of Newcastle fought several delaying actions as he tried to prevent the Scots from crossing the River Tyne and surrounding the city of Newcastle upon TyneNewcastle upon Tyne
Newcastle upon Tyne is a city and metropolitan borough of Tyne and Wear, in North East England. Historically a part of Northumberland, it is situated on the north bank of the River Tyne...
. Meanwhile, a Parliamentarian cavalry force under Sir Thomas Fairfax, which had been campaigning in Cheshire
Cheshire
Cheshire is a ceremonial county in North West England. Cheshire's county town is the city of Chester, although its largest town is Warrington. Other major towns include Widnes, Congleton, Crewe, Ellesmere Port, Runcorn, Macclesfield, Winsford, Northwich, and Wilmslow...
and Lancashire during the winter, crossed the Pennines and entered the West Riding of Yorkshire. To prevent Sir Thomas rejoining Lord Fairfax in Hull, Belasyse occupied the town of Selby
Selby
Selby is a town and civil parish in North Yorkshire, England. Situated south of the city of York, along the course of the River Ouse, Selby is the largest and, with a population of 13,012, most populous settlement of the wider Selby local government district.Historically a part of the West Riding...
which lay between them. On 11 April, Sir Thomas Fairfax's force, reinforced by infantry under Sir John Meldrum
John Meldrum
Sir John Meldrum was a soldier of Scottish origin who spent 36 years in the service of the Stuart kings of Scotland and England, James VI and I and Charles I. In 1636, Meldrum was granted by letters-patent from the king licence to continue and renew the lighthouses erected by Charles I on the...
, stormed Selby
Battle of Selby
The Battle of Selby occurred in April 1644 during the English Civil War. It was a Parliamentarian victory over the Royalists.-Prelude:The war had advanced to the stage where the Parliamentary forces were seeking to control far larger swathes of territory, and were defeating Royalist pockets of...
, capturing Belasyse and most of his force.
Hearing the news, Newcastle realised that the city of York was threatened. York was the principal city and bastion of Royalist power in the north of England, and its loss would be a serious blow to the Royalist cause. He hastily retreated there to forestall the Fairfaxes. Leven left a detachment to mask the Royalist garrison of Newcastle upon Tyne, and followed Newcastle's army with his main body. On 22 April, Leven and the Fairfaxes joined forces at Wetherby
Wetherby
Wetherby is a market town and civil parish within the metropolitan borough of the City of Leeds, in West Yorkshire, England. It stands on the River Wharfe, and has been for centuries a crossing place and staging post on the Great North Road, being mid-way between London and Edinburgh...
, about 14 miles (22.5 km) west of York. Together, they began the Siege of York
Siege of York
The Siege of York in 1644 was a prolonged contest for York during the English Civil War, between the Scottish Covenanter Army and the Parliamentarian Armies of the Northern Association and Eastern Association on the one hand, and the Royalist Army under the Marquess of Newcastle on the other...
. Initially, the siege was a rather loose blockade as the Scots and Parliamentarians concentrated on capturing smaller Royalist garrisons which threatened their communications with Hull. On 3 June, they were reinforced by the Parliamentarian army of the Eastern Association
Eastern Association
The Eastern Association of counties was a Parliamentarian or 'Roundhead' army during the English Civil War. It was formed from a number of pro-Parliamentary militias in the east of England in 1642, including a troop of cavalry led by Oliver Cromwell...
under the Earl of Manchester
Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester
Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester KG, KB, FRS was an important commander of Parliamentary forces in the First English Civil War, and for a time Oliver Cromwell's superior.-Life:...
. York was now completely encircled and siege operations began in earnest. Leven was accepted as Commander in Chief of the three combined allied armies before York (referred to by Parliament as the "Army of Both Kingdoms"). It was politic to make the Scots pre-eminent in the north and the Scots were the largest single contingent in the Army, but Leven was also a respected veteran of the Thirty Years' War
Thirty Years' War
The Thirty Years' War was fought primarily in what is now Germany, and at various points involved most countries in Europe. It was one of the most destructive conflicts in European history....
.
Relief moves
Oxford
The city of Oxford is the county town of Oxfordshire, England. The city, made prominent by its medieval university, has a population of just under 165,000, with 153,900 living within the district boundary. It lies about 50 miles north-west of London. The rivers Cherwell and Thames run through...
, where King Charles had his wartime capital. From 24 April to 5 May, he held a council of war
Council of war
A council of war is a term in military science that describes a meeting held to decide on a course of action, usually in the midst of a battle. Under normal circumstances, decisions are made by a commanding officer, optionally communicated and coordinated by staff officers, and then implemented by...
attended by his nephew and most renowned field commander, Prince Rupert
Prince Rupert of the Rhine
Rupert, Count Palatine of the Rhine, Duke of Bavaria, 1st Duke of Cumberland, 1st Earl of Holderness , commonly called Prince Rupert of the Rhine, KG, FRS was a noted soldier, admiral, scientist, sportsman, colonial governor and amateur artist during the 17th century...
. It was settled that while Charles attempted to play for time in Oxford, Rupert would relieve York.
Rupert set out from Shrewsbury
Shrewsbury
Shrewsbury is the county town of Shropshire, in the West Midlands region of England. Lying on the River Severn, it is a civil parish home to some 70,000 inhabitants, and is the primary settlement and headquarters of Shropshire Council...
with a small force on 16 May. His first moves were intended to gather reinforcements along the way to bolster his army, and secure Lancashire for the troops heading over from Ireland for the Royalist cause. He assumed the direction of a small Royalist army, based on Chester
Chester
Chester is a city in Cheshire, England. Lying on the River Dee, close to the border with Wales, it is home to 77,040 inhabitants, and is the largest and most populous settlement of the wider unitary authority area of Cheshire West and Chester, which had a population of 328,100 according to the...
and commanded by Lord John Byron
John Byron, 1st Baron Byron
John Byron, 1st Baron Byron was an English Royalist and supporter of Charles I during the English Civil War.-Life:...
, raising his force to 2,000 horse and 6,000 foot. Having forced a crossing of the River Mersey
River Mersey
The River Mersey is a river in North West England. It is around long, stretching from Stockport, Greater Manchester, and ending at Liverpool Bay, Merseyside. For centuries, it formed part of the ancient county divide between Lancashire and Cheshire....
at Stockport
Stockport
Stockport is a town in Greater Manchester, England. It lies on elevated ground southeast of Manchester city centre, at the point where the rivers Goyt and Tame join and create the River Mersey. Stockport is the largest settlement in the metropolitan borough of the same name...
, he stormed Bolton
Bolton Massacre
The Bolton Massacre, sometimes recorded as the Storming of Bolton, was an episode in the English Civil War, on 28 May 1644. The strongly Parliamentarian town was stormed and captured by the Royalist forces under Prince Rupert of the Rhine. It was alleged that up to 1,600 of Bolton's defenders and...
, allegedly killing 1,600 of the Parliamentarian defenders and citizens. Resting at Bury
Bury
Bury is a town in Greater Manchester, England. It lies on the River Irwell, east of Bolton, west-southwest of Rochdale, and north-northwest of the city of Manchester...
nearby, Rupert was joined by the Marquess of Newcastle's cavalry under Lord George Goring
George Goring, Lord Goring
George Goring, Lord Goring was an English Royalist soldier. He was known by the courtesy title Lord Goring as the eldest son of the 1st Earl of Norwich.- The Goring family :...
, which had broken out of York early in the siege, with a small contingent from Derbyshire
Derbyshire
Derbyshire is a county in the East Midlands of England. A substantial portion of the Peak District National Park lies within Derbyshire. The northern part of Derbyshire overlaps with the Pennines, a famous chain of hills and mountains. The county contains within its boundary of approx...
, and several regiments which were being freshly raised in Lancashire by the Earl of Derby
James Stanley, 7th Earl of Derby
James Stanley, 7th Earl of Derby KG was a supporter of the Royalist cause in the English Civil War.Born at Knowsley, he is sometimes styled the Great Earl of Derby, eldest son of William Stanley, 6th Earl of Derby and Lady Elizabeth de Vere. During his father's life he was known as Lord Strange...
. Having sidestepped the Parliamentarian stronghold
Fortification
Fortifications are military constructions and buildings designed for defence in warfare and military bases. Humans have constructed defensive works for many thousands of years, in a variety of increasingly complex designs...
of Manchester
Manchester
Manchester is a city and metropolitan borough in Greater Manchester, England. According to the Office for National Statistics, the 2010 mid-year population estimate for Manchester was 498,800. Manchester lies within one of the UK's largest metropolitan areas, the metropolitan county of Greater...
, Prince Rupert approached Liverpool
Liverpool
Liverpool is a city and metropolitan borough of Merseyside, England, along the eastern side of the Mersey Estuary. It was founded as a borough in 1207 and was granted city status in 1880...
on 6 June and wrested control of the city from Parliament after a five-day siege.
Rupert now hesitated, unsure whether to proceed to the relief of York or remain to consolidate the Royalist hold on Lancashire, securing more reinforcements in the process. He also distrusted some of the members of Charles’s council of war and was wary of being so far from the King's side. On 16 June, he received a dispatch from the King which contained troubling news. The King's advisors on the council of war had overturned Rupert’s defensive policies, sending the garrisons of Reading
Reading, Berkshire
Reading is a large town and unitary authority area in England. It is located in the Thames Valley at the confluence of the River Thames and River Kennet, and on both the Great Western Main Line railway and the M4 motorway, some west of London....
and Abingdon
Abingdon, Oxfordshire
Abingdon or archaically Abingdon-on-Thames is a market town and civil parish in Oxfordshire, England. It is the seat of the Vale of White Horse district. Previously the county town of Berkshire, Abingdon is one of several places that claim to be Britain's oldest continuously occupied town, with...
on an offensive in the West Country. This had left Oxford exposed to a sudden threat from the Parliamentarian armies commanded by the Earl of Essex
Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex
Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex was an English Parliamentarian and soldier during the first half of the seventeenth century. With the start of the English Civil War in 1642 he became the first Captain-General and Chief Commander of the Parliamentarian army, also known as the Roundheads...
and Sir William Waller
William Waller
Sir William Waller was an English soldier during the English Civil War. He received his education at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, and served in the Venetian army and in the Thirty Years' War...
and forced the King to leave the city in haste and head to Worcester
Worcester
The City of Worcester, commonly known as Worcester, , is a city and county town of Worcestershire in the West Midlands of England. Worcester is situated some southwest of Birmingham and north of Gloucester, and has an approximate population of 94,000 people. The River Severn runs through the...
, where he was still in danger. Together with this unfortunate news, the letter contained some ambiguous orders regarding Rupert's northern offensive and future plans:
Rupert understood the letter to be an order both to relieve York and defeat the allied army before heading south once more to aid the King. By this time Rupert's army numbered nearly 14,000. He set out from Liverpool to Preston, which surrendered without a fight. From there he proceeded via Clitheroe
Clitheroe
Clitheroe is a town and civil parish in the Borough of Ribble Valley in Lancashire, England. It is 1½ miles from the Forest of Bowland and is often used as a base for tourists in the area. It has a population of 14,697...
and crossed the Pennines to Skipton
Skipton
Skipton is a market town and civil parish within the Craven district of North Yorkshire, England. It is located along the course of both the Leeds and Liverpool Canal and the River Aire, on the south side of the Yorkshire Dales, northwest of Bradford and west of York...
, where he paused for three days from 26 June to 28 June to "fix arms" and await some final reinforcements from Cumberland
Cumberland
Cumberland is a historic county of North West England, on the border with Scotland, from the 12th century until 1974. It formed an administrative county from 1889 to 1974 and now forms part of Cumbria....
and Westmoreland
Westmoreland
Westmoreland is a historic county in England. It may also refer to:-Places:Australia*Westmoreland County, New South WalesCanada*Westmorland County, New BrunswickJamaica*Westmoreland, Jamaica, a parishNew Zealand...
. He arrived at the Royalist garrison at Knaresborough Castle
Knaresborough Castle
Knaresborough Castle is a ruined fortress overlooking the River Nidd in the town of Knaresborough, North Yorkshire, England.-History:The castle was first built by a Norman baron in c.1100 on a cliff above the River Nidd. There is documentary evidence dating from 1130 referring to works carried out...
14 miles (22.5 km) northwest of York on 30 June.
Relief of York
The allies were aware of Rupert's approach and had been hoping that reinforcements from the Midlands under Sir John Meldrum and the Earl of DenbighBasil Feilding, 2nd Earl of Denbigh
Basil Feilding, 2nd Earl of Denbigh was the eldest son of William Feilding, 1st Earl of Denbigh.Like his father, the son was educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. He was summoned to the House of Lords as Baron Feilding in March 1629...
could ward off this threat, but they learned that these forces could not intervene in time. The allied armies around York were separated from each other by rivers, and if Rupert attacked them in their siege lines he could destroy any one army before the other two could intervene. Therefore they abandoned the siege on the night of 30 June, and concentrated their forces near the village of Hessay
Hessay
Hessay is a village and civil parish in the unitary authority of the City of York in North Yorkshire, England about west of York.According to the 2001 census the parish had a population of 181. Prior to 1996 it had been part of the Harrogate district. Recent developments have increased the...
before taking position on Marston Moor, where they blocked Rupert's expected direct march to York (along the old Roman road named Ermine Street
Ermine Street
Ermine Street is the name of a major Roman road in England that ran from London to Lincoln and York . The Old English name was 'Earninga Straete' , named after a tribe called the Earningas, who inhabited a district later known as Armingford Hundred, around Arrington, Cambridgeshire and Royston,...
, the modern A59), and could easily move to their left to prevent Rupert making any move to the south via Wetherby
Wetherby
Wetherby is a market town and civil parish within the metropolitan borough of the City of Leeds, in West Yorkshire, England. It stands on the River Wharfe, and has been for centuries a crossing place and staging post on the Great North Road, being mid-way between London and Edinburgh...
.
Early on 1 July, some Royalist cavalry advanced from Knaresborough and appeared on the Moor, and the allies prepared for battle. However, Rupert had made a 22 miles (35.4 km) flank march to the northeast with his main body, crossing the River Ure
River Ure
The River Ure is a river in North Yorkshire, England, approximately long from its source to the point where it changes name to the River Ouse. It is the principal river of Wensleydale, which is the only one of the Dales now named after a village rather than its river...
at Boroughbridge
Boroughbridge
Boroughbridge is a small town and civil parish in the Harrogate district of North Yorkshire, England. It is situated northwest of York. Until its bypass was built, it was on the main A1 road from London to Edinburgh...
and the River Swale
River Swale
The River Swale is a river in Yorkshire, England and a major tributary of the River Ure, which itself becomes the River Ouse, emptying into the North Sea via the Humber Estuary....
at Thornton Bridge. These two rivers merge to form the River Ouse
River Ouse, Yorkshire
The River Ouse is a river in North Yorkshire, England. The river is formed from the River Ure at Cuddy Shaw Reach near Linton-on-Ouse, about 6 miles downstream of the confluence of the River Swale with the River Ure...
, which Rupert had successfully put between himself and the allied armies. Later that day, his forces defeated the Earl of Manchester's dragoons, who had been left to guard a bridge of boats
Bridge of boats
A "bridge of boats" istype of bridge which floats on water instead of having permanent pillars. It is built by linking boats and the first and last being anchored to the shores. It was used as a military technique since ancient times, being the fastest method for an army to construct a water crossing...
across the Ouse at the village of Poppleton
Nether Poppleton
Nether Poppleton is a village and civil parish in the unitary authority of the City of York in North Yorkshire, England. It is situated by the West bank of the River Ouse adjacent to Upper Poppleton, and west of York close to the A59 road from York to Harrogate...
a few miles north of York. This had been the only crossing available to the allies above another bridge of boats at Acaster Malbis
Acaster Malbis
Acaster Malbis is a village and civil parish in the unitary authority of the City of York, England. It is located on the River Ouse, almost 5 miles south of York...
5 miles (8 km) south of York, and its capture prevented the allies crossing the Ouse to engage Rupert.
More of Rupert's cavalry arrived at York to gain touch with the garrison. With York definitely relieved, Newcastle sent Rupert a fulsome letter of welcome and congratulations. Rupert replied, not in person but through Goring, with a peremptory demand for Newcastle to march his forces to Rupert's assistance on the following morning.
Prelude
On learning that they had been outmanoeuvred, the allied commanders debated their options. They decided to march south to TadcasterTadcaster
Tadcaster is a market town and civil parish in the Selby district of North Yorkshire, England. Lying on the Great North Road approximately east of Leeds and west of York. It is the last town on the River Wharfe before it joins the River Ouse about downstream...
and Cawood
Cawood
Cawood is a large village and civil parish in the Selby district of North Yorkshire, England that is notable as the finding-place of the Cawood sword....
, where they could both protect their own supply lines from Hull, and also block any move south by Rupert on either side of the Ouse. The Parliamentarian foot (infantry), ordnance and baggage set off early on 2 July, leaving the cavalry and dragoons, commanded by Sir Thomas Fairfax, as rearguard. At about 9 am, the allied generals learned that Rupert's army had crossed the captured bridge of boats at Poppleton, and was advancing onto Marston Moor. The Scottish and Parliamentarian foot, some of whom had already reached Tadcaster, were hastily recalled.
Around midday, Rupert was joined on Marston Moor by Newcastle, accompanied by a mounted troop of "Gentleman Volunteers" only. Rupert greeted him by saying, "My Lord, I wish you had come sooner with your forces, but I hope we shall yet have a glorious day." Newcastle was strongly opposed to a pitched battle
Pitched battle
A pitched battle is a battle where both sides choose to fight at a chosen location and time and where either side has the option to disengage either before the battle starts, or shortly after the first armed exchanges....
. He counselled that the three allied armies, with separate base areas and lines of communication to protect, would eventually separate. He also suggested waiting for a force of 3,000 under Colonel Clavering and collected garrisons amounting to another 2,000 to join the Royalist army. Rupert was adamant that the King's letter (which he never showed to Newcastle) was a command to engage and defeat the enemy immediately. Furthermore, Rupert wished to compensate for the Royalists' numerical inferiority by catching the enemy unawares, and before further Parliamentarian reinforcements could increase their superiority in numbers.
However, Newcastle's soldiers in York had refused to fight unless given their delayed payment. A number were also absent, pillaging the abandoned allied siege works and encampments outside the city, and had yet to return. Rupert's own infantry were exhausted from their long march on the previous day. Rupert therefore did not attack, and the odds against him lengthened as the day wore on and the Scots and Parliamentarians returned from their aborted move south and took position. There were brief cannonades and skirmishes, but neither side attacked.
At about 4:00 pm, the contingent from York belatedly arrived, accompanied by Newcastle's Lieutenant General, Lord Eythin
James King (soldier)
James King, 1st Lord Eythin was a Scottish soldier, who served in the Swedish army, and who later supported King Charles I in the English Civil War....
. Rupert and Eythin already knew and disliked each other. Both had fought at the Battle of Vlotho
Battle of Vlotho
The Battle of Vlotho was the culmination of an attempt by Charles I Louis, Elector Palatine to launch a campaign with the aim of recapturing the Rhenish Palatinate. Charles Louis' defeat marked the last time either Palatine or English forces played an important role in the Thirty Years'...
in 1638, where Rupert had been captured and held prisoner for several years. Rupert blamed Eythin's caution for the defeat on that occasion, while Eythin blamed Rupert's rashness. On the Moor, Eythin criticised Rupert's dispositions as being drawn up too close to the enemy. His main concern was that a fold in the ground (referred to by some eye-witnesses as a "glen") between the ridge on which the allied forces were drawn up and the track between Long Marston and Tockwith concealed the front line of the allied infantry from both view and artillery fire, allowing them to attack suddenly from a comparatively close distance. When Rupert proposed to either attack or move his army back as Eythin suggested, Eythin then pontificated that it was too late in the day for such a move. The Royalist army prepared to settle down for the night, close to the allied armies.
Scots and Parliamentarians
At some point in the day, the Royalists attempted to seize a rabbit warren to the west of the cornfields from where they might enfilade the Parliamentarian position, but they were driven off and the Parliamentarian left wing of horse occupied the ground. The wing was under the command of Manchester's Lieutenant General Oliver Cromwell
Oliver Cromwell
Oliver Cromwell was an English military and political leader who overthrew the English monarchy and temporarily turned England into a republican Commonwealth, and served as Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland....
. The first two lines consisted of over 3,000 cavalry from the Eastern Association, including Cromwell's own Regiment of Ironsides
Ironside (cavalry)
The Ironsides were troopers in the Parliamentarian cavalry formed by English political leader Oliver Cromwell in the 17th century, during the English Civil War. The name came from "Old Ironsides", one of Cromwell's nicknames...
. They were deployed in eleven divisions of three or four troops of cavalry each, with 600 "commanded" musketeers deployed as platoons between them. The use of musketeers to disrupt attacking cavalry or dragoons was a common practice in the Swedish army of the Thirty Years' War, and was adopted by both the Parliamentarians and Royalists at Marston Moor. No surviving map or account states who commanded the second line, but Colonel Bartholomew Vermuyden was Manchester's Commissary General, or second in command of the Eastern Association horse. Three regiments of Scots horse, numbering 1,000 and mounted on lighter ponies, formed a third line to Cromwell's rear under Sir David Leslie. Five hundred Scottish dragoons under Colonel Hugh Fraser were deployed on the extreme left.
The centre, under the three generals-in-chief with no overall commander, consisted of over 14,000 foot, with 30 to 40 pieces of artillery. The various regiments had been hastily deployed as they returned to the field and were considerably mixed up, but most of Manchester's infantry under Sergeant Major General Lawrence Crawford
Lawrence Crawford
Lawrence Crawford was a Scottish soldier who fought in English or other armies on the continent of Europe. However, his motives were not mercenary, as he fought only for Presbyterian principles or causes....
were on the left of the front line, and Lord Fairfax's in the centre. Two Scots brigades each of two regiments, the "Vanguard" of their army, made up the right of the front line under Lieutenant General William Baillie. The second line consisted of four Scots brigades, their "Main Battle" or simply "Battle", under Sergeant Major General James Lumsden
James Lumsden
James Lumsden was a Scottish soldier who served in the Swedish army of Gustavus Adolphus during the Thirty Years' War, and subsequently commanded Scottish Covenanter armies....
. The weaker third and fourth lines consisted of some of Fairfax's infantry, a single Scots brigade and an incomplete Scottish regiment, and the Earl of Manchester's own Regiment of Foot.
The right wing was commanded by Sir Thomas Fairfax, with John Lambert
John Lambert (general)
John Lambert was an English Parliamentary general and politician. He fought during the English Civil War and then in Oliver Cromwell's Scottish campaign , becoming thereafter active in civilian politics until his dismissal by Cromwell in 1657...
as his second in command. He had at least 2,000 horse from Yorkshire and Lancashire, deployed in nine divisions, and 600 musketeers, with three regiments of Scots horse, numbering about 1,000 and commanded by the Earl of Eglinton, to his rear.
Royalists
The Royalists occupied the low-lying moor, behind a drainage ditch that Rupert noted as an effective obstacle for a cavalry charge. There is some dispute over the course of ditch at the time of the battle. Some contemporary accounts support the contention by later historians that it was non-existent on the Royalists' right wing. On the other hand, a near-contemporary plan of the Royalist dispositions by Rupert's chief engineer, Bernard de GommeBernard de Gomme
Sir Bernard de Gomme was a Dutch military engineer. By some he is considered the most important figure in 17th century English military engineering.-Early life:...
, shows the ditch in its present-day alignment. It is generally accepted that the ditch was at least less of an obstacle on the Royalist right.
The Royalist left wing was commanded by Lord Goring. It consisted of 2,100 cavalry, mainly from the Marquess of Newcastle's cavalry, the "Northern Horse", and 500 musketeers. The first line was commanded by Goring and the second by Sir Charles Lucas
Charles Lucas
Sir Charles Lucas was an English soldier, a Royalist commander in the English Civil War.-Biography:Lucas was the son of Sir Thomas Lucas of Colchester, Essex. As a young man Lucas served in the Netherlands under the command of his brother, and in the "Bishops' Wars" he commanded Cheesea troop of...
.
Their centre was nominally commanded by Eythin. A brigade numbering 1,500 and consisting of Rupert's and Byron's regiments of foot under Colonel Robert Napier of Byron's regiment was deployed at the ditch, at the junction of the right wing and centre. To their left, a forlorn hope
Forlorn hope
A forlorn hope is a band of soldiers or other combatants chosen to take the leading part in a military operation, such as an assault on a defended position, where the risk of casualties is high....
of musketeers lined the ditch. Behind them, the first line and the left wing of the second line were composed of the remaining infantry units of Rupert's army, numbering 5,500, under Rupert's Sergeant-Major General Henry Tillier. The 3,000 infantry from Newcastle's army under Sergeant Major General Francis Mackworth formed the right wing of the second line and an incomplete third line when they arrived, and a brigade of 600 "Northern Horse" under Sir William Blakiston was deployed to their left. There were a total of 14 field guns deployed in the centre. It has been suggested that some at least of Mackworth's infantry had not taken up their assigned positions when the battle began, leaving the right of the Royalist centre understrength.
The right wing was commanded by Lord Byron, with 2,600 horse and 500 musketeers. The second line, which included Prince Rupert's Regiment of Horse but also some comparatively inexperienced regiments, was commanded by Lord Molyneux
Richard Molyneux, 2nd Viscount Molyneux
Richard Molyneux, 2nd Viscount Molyneux of Maryborough, was the son of Richard Molyneux, 1st Viscount Molyneux and inherited his title on his father's death in 1636. He married Frances Seymour, daughter of William Seymour, 2nd Duke of Somerset and Lady Frances Devereux, at Essex House on 28...
, although the experienced but unprincipled Sir John Hurry
John Hurry
Sir John Hurry was a Scottish soldier.He was born in Aberdeenshire, and saw military service as a young man in Germany.In 1641 he returned home and became Lieutenant-Colonel in a Scottish regiment. At the end of the same year he was involved in the plot known as the "Incident"...
apparently acted as Byron's second in command.
Unlike the Scots and Parliamentarians, Rupert retained a reserve of 600 cavalry, including his elite Lifeguard of Horse, under his personal command. This reserve was situated behind the centre.
Main Action
Delayed by the late arrival of the York garrison, it was late evening before the Royalists were fully deployed. A flurry of rain showers and the discouragement of Newcastle and Eythin persuaded Rupert to delay his attack until the next day. From the ranks of the allied army he could hear the singing of psalms. As the Royalist troops broke ranks for their supper, Leven noted the lack of preparation among his opponents, and ordered his men to attack at or shortly after 7:30 pm, just as a thunderstormThunderstorm
A thunderstorm, also known as an electrical storm, a lightning storm, thundershower or simply a storm is a form of weather characterized by the presence of lightning and its acoustic effect on the Earth's atmosphere known as thunder. The meteorologically assigned cloud type associated with the...
broke out over the moor.
On the allied left, Crawford's infantry outflanked and drove back Napier's brigade while Cromwell's horse quickly defeated Byron's wing. Though under orders to stand his ground and rely on the ditch and musket fire to slow and disorganize an enemy attack, Byron instead ordered a hasty counter-charge which disordered his own troops and prevented his musketeers and four "drakes" (field guns) attached to Napier's brigade firing without fear of hitting their own cavalry. In the clashes which followed, Byron's front line regiments were put to flight. Cromwell was slightly wounded in the neck, by a pistol ball in most accounts, and briefly left the field to have the wound dressed.
Noting the setback on this flank, Rupert led his reserve towards the right, rallying his own fleeing Regiment of Horse and leading them in a counter-attack. A Parliamentarian officer wrote:
Sir David Leslie's Scots eventually swung the balance for Cromwell, outflanking and defeating the Royalist cavalry. Rupert's right wing and reserve were routed and he himself narrowly avoided capture by hiding in a nearby bean field.
In the centre, Crawford's, Lord Fairfax's and half of Baillie's foot initially succeeded in crossing the ditch, capturing at least three pieces of artillery. On the allied right, Sir Thomas Fairfax's wing fared worse. He later wrote:
Fairfax wrote that his second-in-command, Major-General Lambert, could not get up to him, and so charged in another place. A lane, the present-day Atterwith Lane, crossed the ditch on this flank, and some accounts suggest that several units were easy targets for the Royalist musketeers as they advanced along the lane only four abreast. When a small embankment alongside the ditch at this point was removed in the 1960s, several hundred musket balls were recovered.
When Goring launched a counter-charge, the disorganised Parliamentarians were routed, although some of the Scottish cavalry behind them resisted stoutly for some time. Most of Goring's victorious wing either scattered in pursuit, or fell out to loot the Allied baggage train, but some of them under Sir Charles Lucas wheeled to attack the right flank of the Allied infantry. Meanwhile, some of Newcastle's foot counter-attacked Lord Fairfax's foot in the centre of the allied front line and threw them into confusion. Following up this advantage, Blakiston's brigade of horse (with its numbers probably augmented by a troop of "Gentleman Volunteers" under Newcastle himself) charged the allied centre. Under these assaults in the confusion and the gathering darkness, over half the Scots infantry and all of Fairfax's infantry fled. The Scottish Sergeant-Major General Lumsden stated that "These that ran away shew themselves most baselie." Leven and Lord Fairfax also left the field, believing all was lost. Manchester remained on the battlefield, but effectively commanded only his own Regiment of Foot near the allied rear.
One isolated Scottish brigade which had been at the right of their front line and consisted of the regiments of the Earl of Crawford-Lindsay and Viscount Maitland
John Maitland, 1st Earl of Lauderdale
John Maitland, 1st Earl of Lauderdale, Viscount of Lauderdale, Viscount Maitland, and Lord Thirlestane and Boltoun, was President of the Scottish Parliament as well as the Privy Council, a lawyer and a judge, who sided with the Parliamentarian cause during the Civil War.The son of Sir John...
stood firm against Lucas, who launched three charges against them. In the third charge, Lucas's horse was killed, and he was taken prisoner. Behind them, Sergeant Major General Lumsden managed to re-form part of the allied centre, using two Scottish brigades which had stood fast. Behind them in turn, the Earl of Manchester's regiment repulsed and scattered Blakiston's brigade of Royalist cavalry.
By now it was nearly fully dark, although the full moon was rising. The countryside for miles around was covered with fugitives from both sides. A messenger from Ireland riding in search of Prince Rupert wrote:
With no general present in command of either side, a drawn battle might have resulted, but Cromwell's disciplined horsemen had rallied behind the Royalist right. Sir Thomas Fairfax, finding himself alone in the midst of Goring's men, removed the "Field Sign
Field sign
A field sign is an unofficial differencing mark worn on a combatant's clothing to show the difference between friend and foe or a combatant and a civilian.-Examples:...
" (a handkerchief or slip of white paper which identified him as a Parliamentarian) from his hat, and made his way to Cromwell's wing to relate the state of affairs on the allied right flank. Cromwell now led his cavalry, with Leslie's Scots horse still in support and Crawford's foot on his right flank, across the battlefield to attack Goring's cavalry.
By this time, Goring's troops were tired and disorganised, and several of his senior officers were prisoners. They nevertheless marched down the hill from the Parliamentarian baggage to occupy roughly the same position which Sir Thomas Fairfax's cavalry had held at the start of the battle, which most contemporary accounts stated to be a disadvantageous position. When Cromwell attacked, Goring's outnumbered troops were driven back. Many of them retired to the "glen", the fold of ground beneath Marston Hill, but refused to take any further part in the battle despite the efforts of officers such as Sir Marmaduke Langdale
Marmaduke Langdale
Sir Marmaduke Langdale was a Royalist commander in the English Civil War.He married Lenox , daughter of Sir John Rodes of Barlborough, Derbyshire, and his third wife Catherine, daughter of Marmaduke Constable of Holderness on 12 September 1626, at St Michael-le-Belfry in York...
and Sir Philip Monckton to rally them. Eventually they obeyed orders to retreat to York late at night.
The triumphant allies meanwhile turned against the remains of the Royalist centre, overrunning successive units and cutting down many fugitives. Finally some of Newcastle's foot, the "Whitecoats", gathered for a last stand in a ditched enclosure. This has been stated to be White Sike Close, in the rear of the Royalists' original position, where some of Newcastle's infantry would have retreated when they found their right flank "in the air" following Byron's and Rupert's defeat. Later research suggests it is more probable that the enclosure was Fox Covert, a mile north of Long Marston on the natural line of retreat towards York. The Whitecoats refused quarter and repulsed constant cavalry charges until infantry and Colonel Hugh Fraser's dragoons were brought up to break their formation. The last 30 survivors finally surrendered.
Casualties
Approximately 4,000 Royalist soldiers had been killed, many in the last standLast stand
Last stand is a loose military term used to describe a body of troops holding a defensive position in the face of overwhelming odds. The defensive force usually takes very heavy casualties or is completely destroyed, as happened in "Custer's Last Stand" at the Battle of Little Big HornBryan Perrett...
of the "Whitecoats", and 1,500 captured, including Sir Charles Lucas and Major General Henry Tillier. The Royalists lost all their guns, with many hundreds of weapons and several standards also falling into the hands of the allied forces. The allied generals' dispatch, and other Parliamentarian accounts, stated that 300 of their soldiers were killed.
One of those mortally wounded among the Parliamentarians was Sir Thomas Fairfax's brother, Charles. Another was Cromwell's nephew, Valentine Walton, who was struck by a cannon ball early in the day. Cromwell was present when he died afterwards, and wrote a famous letter to the soldier's father, Cromwell's brother-in-law, also named Valentine Walton
Valentine Walton
Valentine Walton was one of the regicides of King Charles I of England.Walton was of very ancient, and knightly family of Great Staughton, in Huntingdonshire. Upon a vacancy he was returned a member of the Long Parliament for the county of Huntingdon...
, which briefly described the battle and then informed the father of the son's last words and death.
Outcome and Aftermath
Late at night, the Royalist generals reached York, along with many routed troops and stragglers. The Governor of York, Sir Thomas GlemhamThomas Glemham
Sir Thomas Glemham was a noted Royalist commander during the First and Second Civil Wars in England.-Early life and career:He was the son of Sir Henry Glemham of Glemham Hall, Little Glemham in Suffolk. After studying at Trinity College, Oxford, he served in armies in Europe from 1610 to 1617...
, allowed only those who were part of the garrison (in effect, only a few officers who had participated in the battle as volunteers) into the city, in case Parliamentarian cavalry entered the city on the heels of the fleeing Royalists. Many fugitives, including wounded, crowded the streets before Micklegate Bar, the gate into the city.
Newcastle, having seen his forces broken and having spent his entire fortune in the Royalist cause, resolved that he would not endure the "laughter of the court". He departed for Scarborough on 3 July and went into exile in Hamburg
Hamburg
-History:The first historic name for the city was, according to Claudius Ptolemy's reports, Treva.But the city takes its modern name, Hamburg, from the first permanent building on the site, a castle whose construction was ordered by the Emperor Charlemagne in AD 808...
, with Eythin and many of his senior officers. Two days after the battle, Rupert rallied 5,000 cavalry and a few hundred infantry whom he mounted on spare horses. He considered that, rather than attempt to restore Royalist fortunes in the north, he was required to return south to rejoin the King. Leaving York by way of Monk Bar on the north east side, he marched back over the Pennines, making a detour to Richmond
Richmond, North Yorkshire
Richmond is a market town and civil parish on the River Swale in North Yorkshire, England and is the administrative centre of the district of Richmondshire. It is situated on the edge of the Yorkshire Dales National Park, and serves as the Park's main tourist centre...
to escape interception. Goring, who had accompanied him this far, headed for Scotland to aid the Royalists there under Montrose
James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose
James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose was a Scottish nobleman and soldier, who initially joined the Covenanters in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, but subsequently supported King Charles I as the English Civil War developed...
. With the departure of Newcastle and Rupert, the Royalists effectively abandoned the north, except for isolated garrisons.
The victorious allies regrouped, although too slowly to intercept Rupert as he left York. Leven had fled to Leeds, nearly 20 miles (32.2 km) from the battlefield, and was greatly surprised to learn of the victory. Once the allied army had reformed, they resumed the siege of York. Under the agreement that no Scottish soldiers were to be garrisoned in the city, the garrison surrendered on honourable terms on 16 July. The allied army soon dispersed. Leven took his troops north to besiege Newcastle upon Tyne and Carlisle, while Manchester's army returned to Lincolnshire
Lincolnshire
Lincolnshire is a county in the east of England. It borders Norfolk to the south east, Cambridgeshire to the south, Rutland to the south west, Leicestershire and Nottinghamshire to the west, South Yorkshire to the north west, and the East Riding of Yorkshire to the north. It also borders...
and eventually moved into the south of England to take part in the Second Battle of Newbury
Second Battle of Newbury
The Second Battle of Newbury was a battle of the English Civil War fought on 27 October, 1644, in Speen, adjoining Newbury in Berkshire. The battle was fought close to the site of the First Battle of Newbury, which took place in late September the previous year.The combined armies of Parliament...
.
Over the next few months the Scots and Parliamentarians slowly eliminated the remaining Royalist garrisons throughout northern England. The Royalist cavalry from the area, the "Northern Horse", continued to fight for King Charles under Sir Marmaduke Langdale, and even made several forays from the south to relieve Royalist garrisons in south Yorkshire, but they became increasingly undisciplined and licentious, turning many former sympathisers away from the Royalist cause.
The defeat at Marston Moor was a serious blow to the Royalist cause. Prince Rupert had been decisively beaten for the first time in the war and lost his reputation for invincibility. He was deeply affected by the defeat, and kept the King's ambiguous dispatch close to him for the remainder of his life. He had suffered an additional blow through the death during the battle of his dog "Boye"
Boye (dog)
The dog Boye , also Boy, was a celebrated and iconic white hunting poodle belonging to Prince Rupert of the Rhine in the 17th century...
, who had been a constant companion by his side throughout his campaigns. Parliamentarian propaganda made much of this, treating Boye almost as a Devil's familiar
Familiar spirit
In European folklore and folk-belief of the Medieval and Early Modern periods, familiar spirits were supernatural entities believed to assist witches and cunning folk in their practice of magic...
.
By contrast, Oliver Cromwell's reputation as a cavalry commander was firmly established. Despite attempts by his political rivals and military critics such as Denzil Holles
Denzil Holles, 1st Baron Holles
Denzil Holles, 1st Baron Holles PC was an English statesman and writer, best known as one of the five members of parliament whom King Charles I of England attempted to arrest in 1642.-Early life:...
and Major General Lawrence Crawford to belittle the part he played, it was acknowledged that the discipline he had instilled into his troops and his own leadership on the battlefield had been crucial to the victory. Cromwell would later declare that Marston Moor was "an absolute victory obtained by God's blessing". From this moment, he was to exert increasing influence both in the House of Commons and in the Parliamentarian armies in the field.