Battle of Guandu
Encyclopedia
The Battle of Guandu was a military conflict between the warlords Cao Cao
and Yuan Shao
in 200 during the prelude to the Three Kingdoms
period of Chinese history
. The battle, which concluded with victory for Cao Cao, was a turning point in the war between the two warlords. It marked the beginning of Cao Cao's gradual reunification of northern China, which made the establishment of the state of Cao Wei
possible.
, namely the Hebei
region, and had large and powerful armies under his command. Cao Cao controlled most of the lands south of the Yellow River and had the Emperor Xian
with him in the new capital city of Xu
. The warlords saw each other as the barrier to their individual ambitions to conquer and rule China. Thus, it seemed that a trial of strength between the two warlords was inevitable.
Some years before the battle, Yuan Shao's advisors Ju Shou
and Tian Feng
had foreseen that Cao Cao would become a threat to their lord in his ambition to dominate China. They advised Yuan Shao to start a campaign against Cao Cao when the latter was still building up his forces, but Yuan Shao ignored their advice as Cao Cao was still superficially his ally. Tension between Cao Cao and Yuan Shao started to build up since Cao Cao received Emperor Xian from the old capital Luoyang
, a move that Yuan Shao had considered but not acted upon, much to his regret.
, Henan
) made it a militarily strategic position. It was near Yan Ford (延津; north of present-day Yanjin County
, Henan) on the Yellow River
and laid on the road leading to the capital city Xu. Cao Cao recognised its strategic importance and in the autumn of 199, he stationed troops there and prepared fortifications. Other deployments along the frontline included Liu Yan (劉延) in Boma (白馬; near present-day Hua County
, Henan), Yu Jin
in Yan Ford, Cheng Yu
in Juancheng (鄄城; near present-day Juancheng County
, Shandong
), and Xiahou Dun
in Meng Ford (孟津; present-day Mengjin County
, Henan). At the same time, Cao Cao sent Zang Ba
to harass Qing Province (青州), which was governed by Yuan Shao's son Yuan Tan
, to prevent his eastern flank from coming under attack.
In the first month of 200, Liu Bei
rebelled against Cao Cao and seized Xu Province (徐州) after killing Che Zhou (車冑), Cao Cao's appointed Inspector (刺史) of Xu Province. Cao Cao, in an unexpected move, left his northern front exposed to Yuan Shao and turned east to retake Xu Province. Yuan Shao tried to use the opportunity to start a campaign south, but was daunted by Yu Jin, the defender of Yan Ford.
When Cao Cao returned to Guandu after his victory over Liu Bei, who sought refuge under Yuan Shao afterwards, Yuan Shao wished to renew the campaign against Cao Cao. The aide-de-camp (參軍) Tian Feng, who had urged Yuan Shao to attack Cao Cao while he was away, advised against such a campaign, reasoning that they had lost their chance and must wait. Yuan Shao ignored Tian Feng's repeated remonstrations and imprisoned him under charges of demoralizing the army.
Shortly after, Yuan Shao had Chen Lin draft a document condemning Cao Cao in what is essentially a declaration of war
, and marched his main army toward the forward base of Liyang (黎陽; northwest of present-day Xun County
, Henan) north of the river. At the time, Yuan Shao's army boasted of numbers up to 110,000, including 10,000 cavalry.
Yuan Shao's general Yan Liang
crossed the Yellow River and attacked Cao Cao's fort at Boma
, besieging it. Heeding his advisor Xun You
's advice, Cao Cao led a battalion toward Yan Ford as a feint to trick Yuan Shao into believing that Cao Cao would attack his camp on the other side of the river. Yuan Shao split off his troops from Liyang to counter Cao Cao's attack. Hence Yan Liang's siege at Boma across from Liyang became unsupported. Cao Cao then struck eastward to lift the siege on Boma. In the ensuing battle, Yan Liang was killed by Guan Yu
and Yuan Shao's troops were routed.
Cao Cao then decided to abandon the fort and evacuated its occupants southward. Taking advantage of the situation, Yuan Shao's forces of 6,000 light cavalry led by Wen Chou
and Liu Bei set off in pursuit. However, Cao Cao anticipated the attack and prepared a distraction tactic. He ordered his troops to discard their steeds, weapons and other valuables along the way. Yuan Shao's forces were tempted by greed and broke their ranks to grab the valuables lying ahead. Just as they were grabbing valuables, Cao Cao's 600 elite cavalry, which had been lying in ambush, attacked. In the chaos, Yuan Shao's commander Wen Chou was killed and Liu Bei fled. Even before the main engagement at Guandu, these relatively minor skirmishes inflicted a crushing blow to the morale of Yuan Shao's army as Yuan Shao had already lost two elite generals at the start of the campaign.
After the engagements at the river, Yuan Shao's army pushed to Yangwu (陽武; near present-day Yuanyang County
, Henan), directly north of Guandu, and began constructing earthen fortifications. By doing so he had ignored Cheng Yu
's bastion of 700 men at Juancheng, and possibly missed an opportunity to attack Cao Cao's eastern flank. This was according to Cheng Yu's prediction earlier that Yuan Shao would ignore a position with so few men. Yuan Shao's Attendant Officer (從事) Ju Shou had reservations about concentrating all of the main army at Yangwu, and suggested to leave a garrison at Yan Ford as a step of caution in case the attack on Guandu did not go well. Yuan Shao ignored the suggestion again. Ju Shou, in despair, tried to excuse himself by claiming to be ill, but Yuan Shao became annoyed at him and would not grant him leave. Instead, he divested Ju Shou's men and divided them under the commands of Guo Tu
and Chunyu Qiong
.
Yuan Shao reorganized his forces and sent Liu Bei with an army to support the rebellions against Cao Cao in Yinjiang (氵隱疆; southwest of present-day Xuchang
), just 20 li
south of the capital. Cao Cao became concerned about such developments in his rear, but his cousin Cao Ren
observed that Liu Bei could not have too much control over his new men given by Yuan Shao. So Cao Cao sent Cao Ren to deal with the rebellion. Cao Ren succeeded, killing the rebel leader Liu Pi and routing Liu Bei. Yuan Shao also tried to cut off Cao Cao from the west by sending Han Meng (韓猛) southwest. Cao Ren again responded to the threat by defeating Han Meng at Mount Jiluo (雞洛山; 50 li northeast of present-day Xinmi
, Henan). Yuan Shao did not send any detached force into Cao Cao's territory after this.
At Yangwu, several war plans were presented to Yuan Shao. Ju Shou observed that Cao Cao's men were running out of grain, and thus it would be proper to enter a war of attrition, denying Cao Cao a decisive battle. Another advisor, Xu You
suggested that Yuan Shao should maintain the front at Guandu but at the same time send men to circle around and capture the emperor in Xu. Yuan Shao accepted neither plan, saying he preferred to capture the emperor with a direct advance. Xu You was not pleased.
, behind the earthen embankments that both sides made. Both sides harassed each other with engines of war. Yuan Shao had erected siege-ramps and high platforms which allowed his men to rain arrows onto Cao Cao's forces. In response, Cao Cao's men had to carry their shields above their heads, and retaliated with catapult
s that destroyed the archer platforms. Yuan Shao also tried to tunnel under Cao Cao's fort, but Cao Cao had a large ditch dug within his lines to block the tunnels. Subsequently, neither side could overcome each other as Cao Cao and Yuan Shao became locked in a stalemate.
Before long, Cao Cao's army began to run short of supplies and Cao Cao was in a dilemma on whether to retreat in order to lure Yuan Shao deeper into his territory. Xun Yu
, the defender of the capital Xu, sent Cao Cao a letter dissuading him from retreat. He wrote, drawing historical examples from the Chu–Han Contention:
Cao Cao followed this advice and held fast to his ground. In the ninth month, Xun Yu pointed out that Yuan Shao had been storing supplies at a depot in the village of Gushi (故市; southwest of present-day Yanjin County, Henan), guarded by Han Meng. Cao Cao sent out small cavalry units led by Xu Huang
and Shi Huan (史渙) to attack this position. They succeeded, routing Han Meng, disrupting Yuan Shao's supply lines, and burning his grain carts. Yuan Shao was forced to call for relief supplies in response to this raid.
returned with an army of 10,000 from Hebei
escorting large reserves of food supplies. Yuan Shao ordered Chunyu to escort the supplies to Wuchao (烏巢; in present-day Yanjin County, Henan), a place 40 li away from Guandu near Gushi, and placed him in charge of guarding the supplies there. Yuan Shao's advisor Ju Shou argued that Wuchao, being their important supply depot, was too lightly guarded and insisted that Yuan Shao should send the general Jiang Qi (蔣奇) to serve as a perimeter guard to Chunyu Qiong and cut off any potential raids. Yuan Shao, again, did not heed Ju Shou's advice.
Shortly after, Yuan Shao's advisor Xu You, who had harboured dissatisfaction against Yuan Shao for not using his plan and having his wife arrested by Shen Pei
, defected over to Cao Cao. He understood Cao Cao's shortage of supplies and alerted Cao Cao to Yuan Shao's exploitable weakness at Wuchao. Cao Cao's generals were suspicious of this piece of intelligence, but his advisors Xun You and Jia Xu
urged Cao Cao to put Xu You's plan to action. Thus at night, Cao Cao led 5,000 infantry and cavalry to attack Wuchao after leaving Cao Hong
and Xun You in charge of his main camp at Guandu. Cao Cao's army disguised itself as a reinforcement unit from Yuan Shao and attacked Wuchao. Chunyu Qiong's initial defences were overrun, and he retreated to hold his forts, which Cao Cao attacked and set on fire.
When Yuan Shao's camp received the news that Wuchao was under attack, Zhang He
urged Yuan Shao to send reinforcements to Wuchao to save the supplies, on which the fate of the campaign hinges. Guo Tu, however, advocated the opposite: attack Cao Cao's base at Guandu with the hope that Cao Cao will abandon the raid on Wuchao. Yuan Shao used Guo Tu's idea and sent Zhang He and Gao Lan
to lead his main army to attack Cao Cao's main camp at Guandu, while only sending a small cavalry unit to reinforce Wuchao.
With incredible bravado, Cao Cao ignored pleas to split off his force to deal with the reinforcements, thus his men were prepared to fight to the death. The raid on Wuchao was a great success, with Yuan Shao's casualties over a thousand. Yuan Shao's generals Lü Weihuang
, Han Juzi
, Sui Yuanjin
, and Zhao Rui (趙叡) were decapitated; Chunyu Qiong was captured by Yue Jin
and had his nose cut off. Almost all of Yuan Shao's food supplies at Wuchao were burnt.
By dawn, Wuchao had turned into an inferno and the morale of Yuan Shao's army plummeted sharply due to the loss of food supplies. Cao Cao also cut off the noses of the dead, mixed them with noses and lips of oxen and horses, and showed them to Yuan Shao's men, as a form of intimidation.
Meanwhile at Guandu, Yuan Shao's army led by Zhang He and Gao Lan failed to break through the enemy lines. Affected by the news of the defeat in Wuchao and rumors of Guo Tu making slanderous remarks about them, Zhang He and Gao Lan surrendered to Cao Hong and destroyed their weapons. The morale of Yuan Shao's army was drastically weakened and Cao Cao's forces seized the opportunity to launch the full attack on Yuan's army. Yuan Shao's numerous armies were destroyed and much of his supplies were captured by Cao Cao. Yuan Shao himself fled north across the Yellow River with only about 800 cavalry, which was what was left of his army. Order was reinstalled only when Yuan Shao reached the camp of his general Jiang Yiqu
, from where he gathered his straggling troops.
Some of Yuan Shao's men could not cross the Yellow River in time and were captured by Cao Cao, including Ju Shou. Some of these men had feigned surrender so they could escape later, thus Cao Cao had these men buried alive
. In his proclamation of victory to Emperor Xian
, Cao Cao claimed to have killed 70,000 enemy troops.
was made his successor. His oldest son Yuan Tan
was furious with the succession and fought with his younger brother. This resulted in internal conflict within Yuan Shao's forces. Yuan Shao's pool of talented advisors and generals were also divided into two factions by the conflict - one supported Yuan Shang and the other supported Yuan Tan. Cao Cao seized the opportunity to launch an attack on Yuan Tan's base at Liyang
. Though Cao Cao eventually withdrew, Yuan Tan came to resent Yuan Shang even more during course of the battle, which led to open warfare between the brothers. Yuan Tan eventually allied with to Cao Cao against Yuan Shang, but Cao Cao accused him of violating some terms of the alliance and killed him in battle. On the other hand, Yuan Shang suffered defeats at the hands of Cao Cao and fled north to join his second brother Yuan Xi
. Cao Cao's forces pursued them and defeated the Wuhuan
tribe, the Yuan brothers' ally, in the Battle of White Wolf Mountain
. Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi fled to Liaodong to seek shelter under the warlord Gongsun Kang
in 207, but Gongsun killed them instead and sent their heads to Cao Cao. By then, most of northern China was unified under Cao Cao's control, and Cao Cao could begin to turn his attention to the south.
Song Dynasty
historian Sima Guang
, compiler of the chronicle Zizhi Tongjian
, remarked that while Yuan Shao was generous, elegant and able, he was also obstinate, self-satisfied, and seldom heeded reasonable advice. These negative attributes were the cause of his defeat.
In more recent times, both the Chinese Nationalist
s and Communist
s have picked up on this battle and made their own interpretations, in various degrees of objectivity.
The Nationalists followed traditional Chinese historiography in that they judged the battle in terms of personalities, rather than the situations and the tactics involved. For example, Cao Cao was seen as capable, decisive, and far-sighted, while Yuan Shao was derided as mediocre, slow, arrogant, and unable to employ men properly.
Communist leader Mao Zedong
, in his writings about strategic retreat, used the Battle of Guandu along with the Battle of Chenggao, Battle of Kunyang
, Battle of Red Cliffs
, Battle of Xiaoting
, and Battle of Fei River
to illustrate the concept. In all of these battles, he wrote, "...the contestants were unequal in strength, and the weaker one yielding a step at first, pinned down the stronger one through delayed action and defeated him." Mao's words attracted some attention to the battle, and many papers were written to analyze the Battle of Guandu in Maoist
terms. The Maoist interpretation, while taking note of Yuan Shao's serious errors of judgement, advocates that the strong enemy will make fateful errors, while the weaker opponent need only to await their appearance. The Marxist
interpretation portrays Yuan Shao as the representative of the great landlord-official class, and Cao Cao as of the middle and small landlord class. The battle was thus a product of class conflict
in which Yuan Shao's fall was inevitable.
Historian Carl Leban attributes Cao Cao's victory to one single strategic decision — the defender's choice of location. Leban asserts that Cao Cao chose Guandu as the place to make his stand because of his superior understanding of the relation between topography
, logistics
, and tactics over Yuan Shao. It was the issue about logistics that prompted Cao Cao to abandon the defence at the Yellow River. By luring Yuan Shao far south into Guandu, Cao Cao had forcibly extended Yuan Shao's supply lines and was thus able to pounce on his logistical disadvantage to gain a decisive victory.
Another western historian, Rafe de Crespigny
, is skeptical of the traditional viewpoint and questions Yuan Shao's supposed advantage over Cao Cao. De Crespigny argues that Yuan Shao's hold on his nominal territories were not as secure as Cao Cao, who had aggressively campaigned to stabilize his surroundings. Taking note that Yuan Shao took ten years to eliminate the isolated Gongsun Zan, de Crespigny suggests that it was not due to indecisiveness that Yuan Shao did not take advantage of Cao Cao's temporal weaknesses, but that Yuan Shao may not have had the men to spare for such ventures. From such a perspective, Yuan Shao, faced with the ever-growing threat of his former ally Cao Cao, concentrated his force in a direct approach to Cao Cao's headquarters in hope that such a strike would overwhelm his enemy. Though he was outwitted and defeated by Cao Cao, Yuan Shao's decisions might not have been so foolish as numerous traditional historians and commentators have said.
as one of the highlights of Cao Cao's story mode. In the fifth installment
Boma, Yan Ford, and Guandu are defended by Cao Cao, Xiahou Dun, and Cao Pi
respectively. In the seventh installment
, the battle clearly focuses on Cao Pi's point of view.
Cao Cao
Cao Cao was a warlord and the penultimate chancellor of the Eastern Han Dynasty who rose to great power during the dynasty's final years. As one of the central figures of the Three Kingdoms period, he laid the foundations for what was to become the state of Cao Wei and was posthumously titled...
and Yuan Shao
Yuan Shao
Yuan Shao was a warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He occupied the northern territories of China during the civil war that occurred towards the end of the Han Dynasty and the beginning of the Three Kingdoms era...
in 200 during the prelude to the Three Kingdoms
Three Kingdoms
The Three Kingdoms period was a period in Chinese history, part of an era of disunity called the "Six Dynasties" following immediately the loss of de facto power of the Han Dynasty rulers. In a strict academic sense it refers to the period between the foundation of the state of Wei in 220 and the...
period of Chinese history
History of China
Chinese civilization originated in various regional centers along both the Yellow River and the Yangtze River valleys in the Neolithic era, but the Yellow River is said to be the Cradle of Chinese Civilization. With thousands of years of continuous history, China is one of the world's oldest...
. The battle, which concluded with victory for Cao Cao, was a turning point in the war between the two warlords. It marked the beginning of Cao Cao's gradual reunification of northern China, which made the establishment of the state of Cao Wei
Cao Wei
Cao Wei was one of the states that competed for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period. With the capital at Luoyang, the state was established by Cao Pi in 220, based upon the foundations that his father Cao Cao laid...
possible.
Background
From 196 onwards, it became increasingly obvious that an armed confrontation between the warlords Cao Cao and Yuan Shao was inevitable. Yuan Shao was in control of the lands north of the Yellow RiverYellow River
The Yellow River or Huang He, formerly known as the Hwang Ho, is the second-longest river in China and the sixth-longest in the world at the estimated length of . Originating in the Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai Province in western China, it flows through nine provinces of China and empties into...
, namely the Hebei
Hebei
' is a province of the People's Republic of China in the North China region. Its one-character abbreviation is "" , named after Ji Province, a Han Dynasty province that included what is now southern Hebei...
region, and had large and powerful armies under his command. Cao Cao controlled most of the lands south of the Yellow River and had the Emperor Xian
Emperor Xian of Han
Emperor Xian of Han , personal name Liu Xie, style name Bohe, was the last emperor of the Han Dynasty period of Chinese history...
with him in the new capital city of Xu
Xuchang
Xuchang is a prefecture-level city in central Henan province in Central China. It borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the northwest, Kaifeng to the northeast, Zhoukou to the east, Luohe to the southeast, and Pingdingshan to the southwest....
. The warlords saw each other as the barrier to their individual ambitions to conquer and rule China. Thus, it seemed that a trial of strength between the two warlords was inevitable.
Some years before the battle, Yuan Shao's advisors Ju Shou
Ju Shou
Ju Shou was an advisor serving under the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history.-Biography:Ju Shou was considered to be one of the most brilliant advisors of Yuan Shao and often gave honest and loyal advice to Yuan, who ignored him most of the time since they often...
and Tian Feng
Tian Feng
Tian Feng , style name Yuanhao , was an advisor to the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history.-In Romance of the Three Kingdoms:...
had foreseen that Cao Cao would become a threat to their lord in his ambition to dominate China. They advised Yuan Shao to start a campaign against Cao Cao when the latter was still building up his forces, but Yuan Shao ignored their advice as Cao Cao was still superficially his ally. Tension between Cao Cao and Yuan Shao started to build up since Cao Cao received Emperor Xian from the old capital Luoyang
Luoyang
Luoyang is a prefecture-level city in western Henan province of Central China. It borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the southeast, Nanyang to the south, Sanmenxia to the west, Jiyuan to the north, and Jiaozuo to the northeast.Situated on the central plain of...
, a move that Yuan Shao had considered but not acted upon, much to his regret.
Prelude
The geographical position of Guandu (官渡; northeast of present-day Zhongmu CountyZhongmu County
Zhongmu County is a county in Zhengzhou, Henan Province, People's Republic of China. It has an area of 1416.8 square kilometers and a population of 680,000....
, Henan
Henan
Henan , is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the central part of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "豫" , named after Yuzhou , a Han Dynasty state that included parts of Henan...
) made it a militarily strategic position. It was near Yan Ford (延津; north of present-day Yanjin County
Yanjin County, Henan
Yanjin County is a county in Xinxiang, Henan province, China....
, Henan) on the Yellow River
Yellow River
The Yellow River or Huang He, formerly known as the Hwang Ho, is the second-longest river in China and the sixth-longest in the world at the estimated length of . Originating in the Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai Province in western China, it flows through nine provinces of China and empties into...
and laid on the road leading to the capital city Xu. Cao Cao recognised its strategic importance and in the autumn of 199, he stationed troops there and prepared fortifications. Other deployments along the frontline included Liu Yan (劉延) in Boma (白馬; near present-day Hua County
Hua County, Henan
Hua County is a county under Anyang municipality, Henan, China.-Location:The Hua county is located in the southmost part of Anyang. To its north lies Neihuang County, also in Anyang; to its east Puyang County in Puyang; to its south the counties of Changyuan and Fengqiu, both in Xinxiang; to its...
, Henan), Yu Jin
Yu Jin
Yu Jin was a military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He joined Cao in the early years of the civil wars that led to the collapse of the Han Dynasty...
in Yan Ford, Cheng Yu
Cheng Yu
Cheng Yu , originally named Cheng Li and changed his name to Yu after dreaming of the sun on top of Mount Tai, was one of the major advisors to the Han Dynasty warlord Cao Cao, and became a high-ranking official of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms era of China...
in Juancheng (鄄城; near present-day Juancheng County
Juancheng County
Juancheng County falls under the jurisdiction of Heze, Shandong Province....
, Shandong
Shandong
' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
), and Xiahou Dun
Xiahou Dun
Xiahou Dun was a military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. Cao Cao's original family name was Xiahou, but his father Cao Song was the adopted son of the eunuch Cao Teng, so Xiahou Dun and Cao Cao share blood relations...
in Meng Ford (孟津; present-day Mengjin County
Mengjin County
Mengjin County is a district of Luoyang, Henan, China.-History:Mengjin began its life as an ancient ferry crossing for the Yellow River. According to legend, King Wu of Zhou crossed the Yellow River at this location, after forming an alliance with the other nobles...
, Henan). At the same time, Cao Cao sent Zang Ba
Zang Ba
Zang Ba was a general during the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He served the warlord Tao Qian initially, followed by Lü Bu and finally Cao Cao and his successors, but for the most part of his career, he remained semi-autonomous over his troops and eastern China...
to harass Qing Province (青州), which was governed by Yuan Shao's son Yuan Tan
Yuan Tan
Yuan Tan was the oldest son of the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. After Yuan Shao's death, Yuan Tan split with his youngest brother Yuan Shang over the successorship to their father's realm. Yuan Tan sought help from the warlord Cao Cao and defeated Yuan...
, to prevent his eastern flank from coming under attack.
In the first month of 200, Liu Bei
Liu Bei
Liu Bei , also known as Liu Xuande, was a warlord, military general and later the founding emperor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history...
rebelled against Cao Cao and seized Xu Province (徐州) after killing Che Zhou (車冑), Cao Cao's appointed Inspector (刺史) of Xu Province. Cao Cao, in an unexpected move, left his northern front exposed to Yuan Shao and turned east to retake Xu Province. Yuan Shao tried to use the opportunity to start a campaign south, but was daunted by Yu Jin, the defender of Yan Ford.
When Cao Cao returned to Guandu after his victory over Liu Bei, who sought refuge under Yuan Shao afterwards, Yuan Shao wished to renew the campaign against Cao Cao. The aide-de-camp (參軍) Tian Feng, who had urged Yuan Shao to attack Cao Cao while he was away, advised against such a campaign, reasoning that they had lost their chance and must wait. Yuan Shao ignored Tian Feng's repeated remonstrations and imprisoned him under charges of demoralizing the army.
Shortly after, Yuan Shao had Chen Lin draft a document condemning Cao Cao in what is essentially a declaration of war
Declaration of war
A declaration of war is a formal act by which one nation goes to war against another. The declaration is a performative speech act by an authorized party of a national government in order to create a state of war between two or more states.The legality of who is competent to declare war varies...
, and marched his main army toward the forward base of Liyang (黎陽; northwest of present-day Xun County
Xun County
Xun County is a county of Henan, China. It is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Hebi. Xùn literally means "sturgeon" in English....
, Henan) north of the river. At the time, Yuan Shao's army boasted of numbers up to 110,000, including 10,000 cavalry.
Skirmishes along the Yellow River
Yuan Shao's general Yan Liang
Yan Liang
Yan Liang was a military general serving under the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He was slain by Guan Yu at the Battle of Boma.-Biography:...
crossed the Yellow River and attacked Cao Cao's fort at Boma
Battle of Boma
The Battle of Boma or Battle of Baima was the first of a series of battles that led to the decisive Battle of Guandu between the warlords Yuan Shao and Cao Cao in northern China during the prelude to the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history...
, besieging it. Heeding his advisor Xun You
Xun You
Xun You was an advisor to the warlord Cao Cao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He later opposed Cao Cao taking the title of "King of Wei". His uncle, Xun Yu, was better known. In the Wade-Giles version of Romance of the Three Kingdoms, he and his uncle have the same name, Xun...
's advice, Cao Cao led a battalion toward Yan Ford as a feint to trick Yuan Shao into believing that Cao Cao would attack his camp on the other side of the river. Yuan Shao split off his troops from Liyang to counter Cao Cao's attack. Hence Yan Liang's siege at Boma across from Liyang became unsupported. Cao Cao then struck eastward to lift the siege on Boma. In the ensuing battle, Yan Liang was killed by Guan Yu
Guan Yu
Guan Yu was a general serving under the warlord Liu Bei during the late Eastern Han Dynasty of China. He played a significant role in the civil war that led to the collapse of the Han Dynasty and the establishment of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period, of which Liu Bei was the...
and Yuan Shao's troops were routed.
Cao Cao then decided to abandon the fort and evacuated its occupants southward. Taking advantage of the situation, Yuan Shao's forces of 6,000 light cavalry led by Wen Chou
Wen Chou
Wen Chou was a military general serving under the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. His force was defeated by that of rival warlord Cao Cao in the Battle of Yan Ford and he was killed in the midst of battle....
and Liu Bei set off in pursuit. However, Cao Cao anticipated the attack and prepared a distraction tactic. He ordered his troops to discard their steeds, weapons and other valuables along the way. Yuan Shao's forces were tempted by greed and broke their ranks to grab the valuables lying ahead. Just as they were grabbing valuables, Cao Cao's 600 elite cavalry, which had been lying in ambush, attacked. In the chaos, Yuan Shao's commander Wen Chou was killed and Liu Bei fled. Even before the main engagement at Guandu, these relatively minor skirmishes inflicted a crushing blow to the morale of Yuan Shao's army as Yuan Shao had already lost two elite generals at the start of the campaign.
The advance on Yangwu and flanking attempts
Cao Cao was aware that he was fighting under disadvantageous conditions, thus he abandoned the forward bases along the Yellow River to prepare for a determined defence at Guandu. Cao Cao also ordered his officials in charge of his lands in his absence to govern with lenience, so as to minimise chances of chaos within the civilian community that could affect his army's morale.After the engagements at the river, Yuan Shao's army pushed to Yangwu (陽武; near present-day Yuanyang County
Yuanyang County, Henan
-Towns and villages:The county is divided into 15 towns and townships. The towns and major villages in Yuanyang County are:-Further reading:* 原阳县志编纂委员会编 河南 原阳县志 Zhong zhou gu ji chu ban she, Zhengzhou Shi, ISBN 7-5348-1232-1; a history of Yuanyang County, Henan province, in Chinese*...
, Henan), directly north of Guandu, and began constructing earthen fortifications. By doing so he had ignored Cheng Yu
Cheng Yu
Cheng Yu , originally named Cheng Li and changed his name to Yu after dreaming of the sun on top of Mount Tai, was one of the major advisors to the Han Dynasty warlord Cao Cao, and became a high-ranking official of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms era of China...
's bastion of 700 men at Juancheng, and possibly missed an opportunity to attack Cao Cao's eastern flank. This was according to Cheng Yu's prediction earlier that Yuan Shao would ignore a position with so few men. Yuan Shao's Attendant Officer (從事) Ju Shou had reservations about concentrating all of the main army at Yangwu, and suggested to leave a garrison at Yan Ford as a step of caution in case the attack on Guandu did not go well. Yuan Shao ignored the suggestion again. Ju Shou, in despair, tried to excuse himself by claiming to be ill, but Yuan Shao became annoyed at him and would not grant him leave. Instead, he divested Ju Shou's men and divided them under the commands of Guo Tu
Guo Tu
Guo Tu was an advisor to the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. Yuan often sought his advice for civil and military decisions.-Serving Yuan Shao:...
and Chunyu Qiong
Chunyu Qiong
Chunyu Qiong was a military general serving under the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He played a significant part in the Battle of Guandu in 200.-Biography:...
.
Yuan Shao reorganized his forces and sent Liu Bei with an army to support the rebellions against Cao Cao in Yinjiang (氵隱疆; southwest of present-day Xuchang
Xuchang
Xuchang is a prefecture-level city in central Henan province in Central China. It borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the northwest, Kaifeng to the northeast, Zhoukou to the east, Luohe to the southeast, and Pingdingshan to the southwest....
), just 20 li
Li (unit)
The li is a traditional Chinese unit of distance, which has varied considerably over time but now has a standardized length of 500 meters or half a kilometer...
south of the capital. Cao Cao became concerned about such developments in his rear, but his cousin Cao Ren
Cao Ren
Cao Ren was a military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao during the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. He played a significant part in assisting Cao Cao in the civil wars leading to the end of the Han Dynasty...
observed that Liu Bei could not have too much control over his new men given by Yuan Shao. So Cao Cao sent Cao Ren to deal with the rebellion. Cao Ren succeeded, killing the rebel leader Liu Pi and routing Liu Bei. Yuan Shao also tried to cut off Cao Cao from the west by sending Han Meng (韓猛) southwest. Cao Ren again responded to the threat by defeating Han Meng at Mount Jiluo (雞洛山; 50 li northeast of present-day Xinmi
Xinmi
Xinmi , formerly Mi County , is a County-level city of Henan, China. It is under the administration of the Zhengzhou city.-External links:*...
, Henan). Yuan Shao did not send any detached force into Cao Cao's territory after this.
At Yangwu, several war plans were presented to Yuan Shao. Ju Shou observed that Cao Cao's men were running out of grain, and thus it would be proper to enter a war of attrition, denying Cao Cao a decisive battle. Another advisor, Xu You
Xu You
Xu You was a strategist serving under the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He was known to be greedy by nature....
suggested that Yuan Shao should maintain the front at Guandu but at the same time send men to circle around and capture the emperor in Xu. Yuan Shao accepted neither plan, saying he preferred to capture the emperor with a direct advance. Xu You was not pleased.
The siege of Guandu
In the eighth month, Yuan Shao's army slowly advanced southward from Yangwu and engaged Cao Cao's men in trench warfareTrench warfare
Trench warfare is a form of occupied fighting lines, consisting largely of trenches, in which troops are largely immune to the enemy's small arms fire and are substantially sheltered from artillery...
, behind the earthen embankments that both sides made. Both sides harassed each other with engines of war. Yuan Shao had erected siege-ramps and high platforms which allowed his men to rain arrows onto Cao Cao's forces. In response, Cao Cao's men had to carry their shields above their heads, and retaliated with catapult
Catapult
A catapult is a device used to throw or hurl a projectile a great distance without the aid of explosive devices—particularly various types of ancient and medieval siege engines. Although the catapult has been used since ancient times, it has proven to be one of the most effective mechanisms during...
s that destroyed the archer platforms. Yuan Shao also tried to tunnel under Cao Cao's fort, but Cao Cao had a large ditch dug within his lines to block the tunnels. Subsequently, neither side could overcome each other as Cao Cao and Yuan Shao became locked in a stalemate.
Before long, Cao Cao's army began to run short of supplies and Cao Cao was in a dilemma on whether to retreat in order to lure Yuan Shao deeper into his territory. Xun Yu
Xun Yu
Xun Yu was a strategist and statesman who served as an advisor to the warlord Cao Cao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history.-Early life:...
, the defender of the capital Xu, sent Cao Cao a letter dissuading him from retreat. He wrote, drawing historical examples from the Chu–Han Contention:
Cao Cao followed this advice and held fast to his ground. In the ninth month, Xun Yu pointed out that Yuan Shao had been storing supplies at a depot in the village of Gushi (故市; southwest of present-day Yanjin County, Henan), guarded by Han Meng. Cao Cao sent out small cavalry units led by Xu Huang
Xu Huang
Xu Huang was a military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao during the late Han Dynasty era of Chinese history. He served the state of Cao Wei, founded by Cao Cao's successor Cao Pi, during the Three Kingdoms period...
and Shi Huan (史渙) to attack this position. They succeeded, routing Han Meng, disrupting Yuan Shao's supply lines, and burning his grain carts. Yuan Shao was forced to call for relief supplies in response to this raid.
The raid on Wuchao
In the tenth month, Yuan Shao's general Chunyu QiongChunyu Qiong
Chunyu Qiong was a military general serving under the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He played a significant part in the Battle of Guandu in 200.-Biography:...
returned with an army of 10,000 from Hebei
Hebei
' is a province of the People's Republic of China in the North China region. Its one-character abbreviation is "" , named after Ji Province, a Han Dynasty province that included what is now southern Hebei...
escorting large reserves of food supplies. Yuan Shao ordered Chunyu to escort the supplies to Wuchao (烏巢; in present-day Yanjin County, Henan), a place 40 li away from Guandu near Gushi, and placed him in charge of guarding the supplies there. Yuan Shao's advisor Ju Shou argued that Wuchao, being their important supply depot, was too lightly guarded and insisted that Yuan Shao should send the general Jiang Qi (蔣奇) to serve as a perimeter guard to Chunyu Qiong and cut off any potential raids. Yuan Shao, again, did not heed Ju Shou's advice.
Shortly after, Yuan Shao's advisor Xu You, who had harboured dissatisfaction against Yuan Shao for not using his plan and having his wife arrested by Shen Pei
Shen Pei
Shen Pei was a minister serving under the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. Shen was criticized by Cao Cao's advisor Xun Yu many times as being called "strong of will but without tact". Following the death of Yuan Shao, Shen went on to serve under Yuan Shang....
, defected over to Cao Cao. He understood Cao Cao's shortage of supplies and alerted Cao Cao to Yuan Shao's exploitable weakness at Wuchao. Cao Cao's generals were suspicious of this piece of intelligence, but his advisors Xun You and Jia Xu
Jia Xu
Jia Xu , style name Wenhe , was an advisor to the warlord Cao Cao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He previously served Dong Zhuo, Li Jue and Zhang Xiu before finally joining Cao Cao...
urged Cao Cao to put Xu You's plan to action. Thus at night, Cao Cao led 5,000 infantry and cavalry to attack Wuchao after leaving Cao Hong
Cao Hong
Cao Hong was a military general of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. He started his career during the late Han Dynasty under the warlord Cao Cao, who was also his cousin.-Early career:...
and Xun You in charge of his main camp at Guandu. Cao Cao's army disguised itself as a reinforcement unit from Yuan Shao and attacked Wuchao. Chunyu Qiong's initial defences were overrun, and he retreated to hold his forts, which Cao Cao attacked and set on fire.
When Yuan Shao's camp received the news that Wuchao was under attack, Zhang He
Zhang He
Zhang He was a military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao during the late Han Dynasty era of Chinese history. He continued serving the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period until his death....
urged Yuan Shao to send reinforcements to Wuchao to save the supplies, on which the fate of the campaign hinges. Guo Tu, however, advocated the opposite: attack Cao Cao's base at Guandu with the hope that Cao Cao will abandon the raid on Wuchao. Yuan Shao used Guo Tu's idea and sent Zhang He and Gao Lan
Gao Lan
Gao Lan was a military general serving under the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He fought in many battles and was respected as a brave man by Yuan. He defected to Cao Cao's side after Yuan's defeat in the Battle of Guandu.-Serving Yuan Shao:Cao Cao and Yuan...
to lead his main army to attack Cao Cao's main camp at Guandu, while only sending a small cavalry unit to reinforce Wuchao.
With incredible bravado, Cao Cao ignored pleas to split off his force to deal with the reinforcements, thus his men were prepared to fight to the death. The raid on Wuchao was a great success, with Yuan Shao's casualties over a thousand. Yuan Shao's generals Lü Weihuang
Lu Weihuang
Lü Weihuang was a military general serving under the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He was tasked with guarding Yuan's supply base at Wuchao together with Chunyu Qiong during the Battle of Guandu in 200...
, Han Juzi
Han Juzi
Han Juzi was a cavalry general serving under the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. Han, along with Chunyu Qiong, were tasked to defend their supply base of Wuchao, during the Battle of Guandu in 200. However, the supply base was soon attacked due to Xu You...
, Sui Yuanjin
Sui Yuanjin
Sui Yuanjin was a military general serving under the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. During the Battle of Guandu between Yuan and rival warlord Cao Cao, Sui was tasked with defending the supply depot at Wuchao together with Chunyu Qiong...
, and Zhao Rui (趙叡) were decapitated; Chunyu Qiong was captured by Yue Jin
Yue Jin
Yue Jin was a military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao during the late Han Dynasty of China. He was noted as much for his short stature as for his valor and ferocity on the battlefield...
and had his nose cut off. Almost all of Yuan Shao's food supplies at Wuchao were burnt.
By dawn, Wuchao had turned into an inferno and the morale of Yuan Shao's army plummeted sharply due to the loss of food supplies. Cao Cao also cut off the noses of the dead, mixed them with noses and lips of oxen and horses, and showed them to Yuan Shao's men, as a form of intimidation.
Meanwhile at Guandu, Yuan Shao's army led by Zhang He and Gao Lan failed to break through the enemy lines. Affected by the news of the defeat in Wuchao and rumors of Guo Tu making slanderous remarks about them, Zhang He and Gao Lan surrendered to Cao Hong and destroyed their weapons. The morale of Yuan Shao's army was drastically weakened and Cao Cao's forces seized the opportunity to launch the full attack on Yuan's army. Yuan Shao's numerous armies were destroyed and much of his supplies were captured by Cao Cao. Yuan Shao himself fled north across the Yellow River with only about 800 cavalry, which was what was left of his army. Order was reinstalled only when Yuan Shao reached the camp of his general Jiang Yiqu
Jiang Yiqu
Jiang Yiqu was a military general serving under the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. Jiang then met Yuan Shao in Liyang, who at the time had just lost to Cao Cao at the Battle of Guandu. Jiang then gathered his troops which were currently scattered, and...
, from where he gathered his straggling troops.
Some of Yuan Shao's men could not cross the Yellow River in time and were captured by Cao Cao, including Ju Shou. Some of these men had feigned surrender so they could escape later, thus Cao Cao had these men buried alive
Premature burial
Premature burial, also known as live burial, burial alive, or vivisepulture, means to be buried while still alive. Animals or humans may be buried alive accidentally or intentionally...
. In his proclamation of victory to Emperor Xian
Emperor Xian of Han
Emperor Xian of Han , personal name Liu Xie, style name Bohe, was the last emperor of the Han Dynasty period of Chinese history...
, Cao Cao claimed to have killed 70,000 enemy troops.
Aftermath
Cao Cao's victory at the Battle of Guandu was a decisive one and the turn of the tide between the struggle of power between him and Yuan Shao. Yuan Shao died two years later and his youngest son Yuan ShangYuán Shàng
Yuan Shang , style name Xianfu , was a warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He was the third son of the warlord Yuan Shao, and succeeded his father...
was made his successor. His oldest son Yuan Tan
Yuan Tan
Yuan Tan was the oldest son of the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. After Yuan Shao's death, Yuan Tan split with his youngest brother Yuan Shang over the successorship to their father's realm. Yuan Tan sought help from the warlord Cao Cao and defeated Yuan...
was furious with the succession and fought with his younger brother. This resulted in internal conflict within Yuan Shao's forces. Yuan Shao's pool of talented advisors and generals were also divided into two factions by the conflict - one supported Yuan Shang and the other supported Yuan Tan. Cao Cao seized the opportunity to launch an attack on Yuan Tan's base at Liyang
Battle of Liyang
The Battle of Liyang during the end of Han Dynasty in China was an invasion attempt by the warlord Cao Cao against the brothers Yuan Shang and Yuan Tan, sons of Cao Cao's rival Yuan Shao. The battle in the ninth Chinese month of 202 was the first between the two factions since the death of Yuan...
. Though Cao Cao eventually withdrew, Yuan Tan came to resent Yuan Shang even more during course of the battle, which led to open warfare between the brothers. Yuan Tan eventually allied with to Cao Cao against Yuan Shang, but Cao Cao accused him of violating some terms of the alliance and killed him in battle. On the other hand, Yuan Shang suffered defeats at the hands of Cao Cao and fled north to join his second brother Yuan Xi
Yuan Xi
Yuan Xi was the second son of the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty era of Chinese history.Yuan was described in Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms as "intelligent but weak and indecisive", in contrast to his older brother Yuan Tan, who was described as...
. Cao Cao's forces pursued them and defeated the Wuhuan
Wuhuan
The Wuhuan were a proto-Mongolic nomadic people who inhabited northern China, in what is now the provinces of Hebei, Liaoning, Shanxi, the municipality of Beijing and the autonomous region of Inner Mongolia....
tribe, the Yuan brothers' ally, in the Battle of White Wolf Mountain
Battle of White Wolf Mountain
The Battle of White Wolf Mountain was a battle fought in 207 during the prelude to the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. The battle took place in northern China, beyond the frontiers of the ruling Later Han Dynasty. It was fought between the warlord Cao Cao and the nomadic Wuhuan tribes,...
. Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi fled to Liaodong to seek shelter under the warlord Gongsun Kang
Gongsun Kang
Gongsun Kang was a warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He became a vassal of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period.-Biography:...
in 207, but Gongsun killed them instead and sent their heads to Cao Cao. By then, most of northern China was unified under Cao Cao's control, and Cao Cao could begin to turn his attention to the south.
Legacy and analysis
Throughout the ages, Cao Cao's impressive victory at Guandu, the climatic event of his life, has drawn analysis by both historical commentators and militarists hoping to imitate his success.Song Dynasty
Song Dynasty
The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
historian Sima Guang
Sima Guang
Sīmǎ Guāng was a Chinese historian, scholar, and high chancellor of the Song Dynasty, jinshi 1038.-Life, profession, and works:...
, compiler of the chronicle Zizhi Tongjian
Zizhi Tongjian
The Zizhi Tongjian was a pioneering reference work in Chinese historiography, published in 1084, under the form of a chronicles. In 1065 CE, Emperor Yingzong of Song ordered the great historian Sima Guang to lead with other scholars such as his chief assistants Liu Shu, Liu Ban and Fan Zuyu, the...
, remarked that while Yuan Shao was generous, elegant and able, he was also obstinate, self-satisfied, and seldom heeded reasonable advice. These negative attributes were the cause of his defeat.
In more recent times, both the Chinese Nationalist
Kuomintang
The Kuomintang of China , sometimes romanized as Guomindang via the Pinyin transcription system or GMD for short, and translated as the Chinese Nationalist Party is a founding and ruling political party of the Republic of China . Its guiding ideology is the Three Principles of the People, espoused...
s and Communist
Communist Party of China
The Communist Party of China , also known as the Chinese Communist Party , is the founding and ruling political party of the People's Republic of China...
s have picked up on this battle and made their own interpretations, in various degrees of objectivity.
The Nationalists followed traditional Chinese historiography in that they judged the battle in terms of personalities, rather than the situations and the tactics involved. For example, Cao Cao was seen as capable, decisive, and far-sighted, while Yuan Shao was derided as mediocre, slow, arrogant, and unable to employ men properly.
Communist leader Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong, also transliterated as Mao Tse-tung , and commonly referred to as Chairman Mao , was a Chinese Communist revolutionary, guerrilla warfare strategist, Marxist political philosopher, and leader of the Chinese Revolution...
, in his writings about strategic retreat, used the Battle of Guandu along with the Battle of Chenggao, Battle of Kunyang
Battle of Kunyang
The Battle of Kunyang was fought between June–July in 23AD, between the resurgent Han and Xin forces. The Han forces were led by Liu Xiu, while the far more numerous Xin were led by Wang Yi and Wang Xun...
, Battle of Red Cliffs
Battle of Red Cliffs
The Battle of Red Cliffs, otherwise known as the Battle of Chibi, was a decisive battle at the end of the Han Dynasty, immediately prior to the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. It was fought in the winter of 208/9 AD between the allied forces of the southern warlords Liu Bei and Sun Quan...
, Battle of Xiaoting
Battle of Xiaoting
The Battle of Xiaoting, also known as the Battle of Yiling and the Battle of Yiling and Xiaoting, was fought between the states of Eastern Wu and Shu Han in 222 during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history...
, and Battle of Fei River
Battle of Fei River
The Battle of Fei River or “Feishui” was a battle in 383, where Fu Jiān of the Di Former Qin Empire was decisively defeated by the numerically inferior Jin army of Eastern Jin....
to illustrate the concept. In all of these battles, he wrote, "...the contestants were unequal in strength, and the weaker one yielding a step at first, pinned down the stronger one through delayed action and defeated him." Mao's words attracted some attention to the battle, and many papers were written to analyze the Battle of Guandu in Maoist
Maoism
Maoism, also known as the Mao Zedong Thought , is claimed by Maoists as an anti-Revisionist form of Marxist communist theory, derived from the teachings of the Chinese political leader Mao Zedong . Developed during the 1950s and 1960s, it was widely applied as the political and military guiding...
terms. The Maoist interpretation, while taking note of Yuan Shao's serious errors of judgement, advocates that the strong enemy will make fateful errors, while the weaker opponent need only to await their appearance. The Marxist
Marxism
Marxism is an economic and sociopolitical worldview and method of socioeconomic inquiry that centers upon a materialist interpretation of history, a dialectical view of social change, and an analysis and critique of the development of capitalism. Marxism was pioneered in the early to mid 19th...
interpretation portrays Yuan Shao as the representative of the great landlord-official class, and Cao Cao as of the middle and small landlord class. The battle was thus a product of class conflict
Class conflict
Class conflict is the tension or antagonism which exists in society due to competing socioeconomic interests between people of different classes....
in which Yuan Shao's fall was inevitable.
Historian Carl Leban attributes Cao Cao's victory to one single strategic decision — the defender's choice of location. Leban asserts that Cao Cao chose Guandu as the place to make his stand because of his superior understanding of the relation between topography
Topography
Topography is the study of Earth's surface shape and features or those ofplanets, moons, and asteroids...
, logistics
Military logistics
Military logistics is the discipline of planning and carrying out the movement and maintenance of military forces. In its most comprehensive sense, it is those aspects or military operations that deal with:...
, and tactics over Yuan Shao. It was the issue about logistics that prompted Cao Cao to abandon the defence at the Yellow River. By luring Yuan Shao far south into Guandu, Cao Cao had forcibly extended Yuan Shao's supply lines and was thus able to pounce on his logistical disadvantage to gain a decisive victory.
Another western historian, Rafe de Crespigny
Rafe de Crespigny
Dr Rafe de Crespigny is a retired Adjunct Professor with the China and Korea Centre, Australian National University in Canberra, Australia...
, is skeptical of the traditional viewpoint and questions Yuan Shao's supposed advantage over Cao Cao. De Crespigny argues that Yuan Shao's hold on his nominal territories were not as secure as Cao Cao, who had aggressively campaigned to stabilize his surroundings. Taking note that Yuan Shao took ten years to eliminate the isolated Gongsun Zan, de Crespigny suggests that it was not due to indecisiveness that Yuan Shao did not take advantage of Cao Cao's temporal weaknesses, but that Yuan Shao may not have had the men to spare for such ventures. From such a perspective, Yuan Shao, faced with the ever-growing threat of his former ally Cao Cao, concentrated his force in a direct approach to Cao Cao's headquarters in hope that such a strike would overwhelm his enemy. Though he was outwitted and defeated by Cao Cao, Yuan Shao's decisions might not have been so foolish as numerous traditional historians and commentators have said.
Modern references
The battle is featured as a playable stage in Koei's video game series Dynasty WarriorsDynasty Warriors
is a series of tactical action video games created by Omega Force and Koei. The award-winning series is a spin-off of Koei's turn-based strategy Romance of the Three Kingdoms series, based loosely around the Chinese classical novel of the same name. The first game titled Dynasty Warriors,...
as one of the highlights of Cao Cao's story mode. In the fifth installment
Dynasty Warriors 5
is a Hack and slash video game set in China and the fifth installment in the Dynasty Warriors series, developed by Omega Force and published by Koei. The game was released on the PlayStation 2 and Xbox. It is based on the Chinese novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong.-Gameplay:The...
Boma, Yan Ford, and Guandu are defended by Cao Cao, Xiahou Dun, and Cao Pi
Cao Pi
Cao Pi , formally known as Emperor Wen of Wei, was the first emperor of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. Born in Qiao County, Pei Commandery , he was the second son of the late Han Dynasty warlord Cao Cao.Cao Pi, like his father, was a poet...
respectively. In the seventh installment
Dynasty Warriors 7
is a hack and slash video game and the seventh official installment of the Dynasty Warriors series. It is developed by Omega Force and published by Koei. The game has been confirmed to be PS3 exclusive in Japan. The story is based on Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms....
, the battle clearly focuses on Cao Pi's point of view.