The
Battle of Dyrrhachium (near present-day
DurrësDurrës is the second-largest city of Albania. It is the most ancient and one of the most economically important cities of Albania. It is located on the central Albanian coast, about west of the capital Tirana. It is situated at one of the narrower points of the Adriatic Sea, opposite the Italian...
in
AlbaniaAlbania , officially the Republic of Albania , is a Mediterranean country in South Eastern Europe. It is bordered by Montenegro to the north, Kosovo to the northeast, Macedonia to the east and Greece to the south-east...
) took place on 18 October 1081, between the
Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire or Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages, centered on the capital of Constantinople, and ruled by Emperors in direct and de jure succession to the ancient Roman Emperors...
, led by the
Emperor Alexius I Comnenus, and the
NormansThe Normans were the people who gave their names to Normandy, a region in northern France. They descended from Viking conquerors of the territory and the native population of mostly Frankish and Gallo-Roman stock...
of Southern Italy under
Robert GuiscardRobert Guiscard, from Latin Viscardus and Old French Viscart, often rendered the Resourceful, the Cunning, the Wily, or the Fox, was a Norman adventurer conspicuous in the conquest of southern Italy and Sicily...
,
Duke of Apulia and Calabria. The battle was fought outside the city of
DyrrhachiumDurrës is the second-largest city of Albania. It is the most ancient and one of the most economically important cities of Albania. It is located on the central Albanian coast, about west of the capital Tirana. It is situated at one of the narrower points of the Adriatic Sea, opposite the Italian...
(also known as
Durazzo), the Byzantine capital of
IllyriaIllyria was in Classical antiquity a region in the western part of today's Balkan Peninsula, inhabited by the Illyrians, a heterogeneous coalition of tribes, about whom very little is known, though a number of them are assumed to have been united by a common Illyrian language.Illyria and the...
, and ended in a Norman victory.
Following the
Norman conquest of Byzantine Italy and Saracen SicilyThe Norman conquest of southern Italy spanned most of the eleventh century, involving many battles and many independent players conquering territories of their own...
, the Byzantine Emperor,
Michael VIIMichael VII Doukas or Ducas , nicknamed Parapinakēs, was Byzantine emperor from 1071 to 1078....
, betrothed his son to
Robert GuiscardRobert Guiscard, from Latin Viscardus and Old French Viscart, often rendered the Resourceful, the Cunning, the Wily, or the Fox, was a Norman adventurer conspicuous in the conquest of southern Italy and Sicily...
's daughter. When Michael was deposed, Robert took this as an excuse to invade the Byzantine Empire in 1081. His army laid siege to Dyrrhachium, but his fleet was defeated by the
VenetiansVenice is a city in northern Italy, the capital of the region Veneto, a population of 271,367 . Together with Padua, the city is included in the Padua-Venice Metropolitan Area . The city historically was an independent nation...
. On 18 October, the Normans engaged a Byzantine army under Alexius I Comnenus outside Dyrrhachium. The battle began with the Byzantine right wing routing the Norman left wing, which broke and fled.
VarangianThe Varangians or Varyags , sometimes referred to as Variagians, were Vikings, Norsemen, who went eastwards and southwards through what is now Russia, Belarus and Ukraine mainly in the 9th and 10th centuries...
mercenaries joined in the pursuit of the fleeing Normans, but became separated from the main force and were massacred. Norman
knightA knight was a "gentleman soldier" or member of the warrior class of the Middle Ages in Europe. In other Indo-European languages, cognates of cavalier or rider are more prevalent suggesting a connection to the knight's mode of transport...
s in the centre attacked the Byzantine centre and routed it, causing the Byzantines to run away.
After this victory, the Normans took Dyrrhachium in February 1082 and advanced inland, capturing most of
MacedoniaMacedonia is a geographical and historical region of the Balkan peninsula in southeastern Europe. Its boundaries have changed considerably over time, but the region is nowadays held to include parts of five Balkan countries: Greece, the Republic of Macedonia, Bulgaria, Albania and Serbia...
and
ThessalyThessaly is one of the 13 peripheries of Greece, and is further sub-divided into 4 prefectures. The capital of the periphery and traditional geographical region is Larissa. Together with the regions of Macedonia and Thrace, it is often referred to unofficially as Northern Greece...
. Robert was then forced to leave
GreeceGreece , officially the Hellenic Republic , is a country in southeastern Europe, situated on the southern end of the Balkan Peninsula....
to deal with an attack on his ally, the
PopeThe pope is the Bishop of Rome and, as such, is leader of the worldwide Catholic Church...
by the
Holy Roman EmperorThe Holy Roman Empire was a union of territories in Central Europe during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period under a Holy Roman Emperor. The first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire was Otto I, crowned in 962. The last was Francis II, who abdicated and dissolved the Empire in 1806 during...
,
Henry IVHenry IV was King of Germany from 1056 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1084 until his forced abdication in 1105. He was the third emperor of the Salian dynasty and one of the most powerful and important figures of the 11th century...
. Robert left his son Bohemond in charge of the army in Greece. Bohemond was initially successful, defeating Alexius in several battles, but was defeated by Alexius outside
LarissaLarissa is a city and the capital of the Thessaly periphery of Greece, and capital of the Larissa Prefecture. It is a principal agricultural centre and a national transportation hub, linked by rail with the port of Volos and with Thessaloniki and Athens...
. Forced to retreat to Italy, Bohemond lost all the territory gained by the Normans in the campaign. The Byzantine recovery began the
Komnenian restorationThe Komnenian restoration is the term used by Byzantinists to describe the military, financial and territorial recovery of the Byzantine Empire under the Komnenian dynasty, from the accession of Alexios I Komnenos in 1081, to the death of Manuel I Komnenos in 1180...
.
Background
The
NormansThe Normans were the people who gave their names to Normandy, a region in northern France. They descended from Viking conquerors of the territory and the native population of mostly Frankish and Gallo-Roman stock...
first arrived in Southern Italy in 1015 from northern
FranceFrance , officially the French Republic , is a country located in Western Europe, with several overseas islands and territories located on other continents. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean...
and served local
LombardThe Lombards were a Germanic people originally from Northern Europe who settled in the valley of the Danube and from there invaded Byzantine Italy in 568 under the leadership of Alboin. They established a Kingdom of Italy which lasted until 774, when it was conquered by the Franks...
lordLord is a title with various meanings. It can denote a prince or a feudal superior . The title today is mostly used in connection with the peerage of the United Kingdom or its predecessor countries, although some users of the title do not themselves hold peerages, and use it 'by courtesy'...
s as mercenaries against the
Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire or Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages, centered on the capital of Constantinople, and ruled by Emperors in direct and de jure succession to the ancient Roman Emperors...
. As they were paid with lands, soon they were powerful enough to challenge Papal authority; in 1054, they defeated the
PopeThe pope is the Bishop of Rome and, as such, is leader of the worldwide Catholic Church...
at the
Battle of CivitateThe Battle of Civitate was fought on 18 June 1053 in Southern Italy, between the Normans, led by the Count of Apulia Humphrey of Hauteville, and a Swabian-Italian-Lombard army, organised by Pope Leo IX and led on the battlefield by Gerard, Duke of Lorraine, and Rudolf, Prince of Benevento...
, forcing him to acknowledge their authority. In 1059, the Pope made
Robert GuiscardRobert Guiscard, from Latin Viscardus and Old French Viscart, often rendered the Resourceful, the Cunning, the Wily, or the Fox, was a Norman adventurer conspicuous in the conquest of southern Italy and Sicily...
, of the
Hauteville familyThe family of the Hauteville was a petty baronial Norman family from the Cotentin which rose to prominence in Europe, Asia, and Africa through its conquests in the Mediterranean, especially Southern Italy and Sicily...
,
DukeA duke is a member of the nobility, historically of highest rank below the monarch, and historically controlling a duchy. The title comes from the Latin Dux Bellorum, which had the sense of "military commander" and was employed by both the Germanic peoples themselves and by the Roman authors...
of
ApuliaApulia is a region in southeastern Italy bordering the Adriatic Sea in the east, the Ionian Sea to the southeast, and the Strait of Òtranto and Gulf of Taranto in the south. Its southern portion known as Salento, a peninsula, forms a high heel on the "boot" of Italy...
,
CalabriaCalabria , in antiquity known as Bruttium, is a region in southern Italy, south of Naples, located at the "toe" of the Italian peninsula. It is bounded to the north by the region of Basilicata, to the south-west by the region of Sicily, to the west by the Tyrrhenian Sea, and to the east by the...
, and
SicilySicily is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. It is an autonomous region of Italy. Several much smaller islands surrounding it are considered to be part of Sicily....
. However, most of Apulia and Calabria were in Byzantine hands, and Sicily was in
SaracenSaracen was a term used by Europeans in the Middle Ages for Arabs at first, then later for all who professed the religion of Islam.-Etymology:...
hands.
By 1071, Robert, together with his brother Roger, had taken over the last Byzantine stronghold in Italy,
BariBari is the capital city of the province of Bari and of the Apulia region, on the Adriatic sea, in Italy. It is the second most important economic centre of mainland Southern Italy after Naples, and is well known as a port and university city, as well as the city of Saint Nicholas...
. By the next year, they conquered all of Sicily, ending the Islamic
Emirate of SicilyThe Emirate of Sicily was an Islamic state on the island of Sicily , which existed from 965 to 1072.-First Arab invasions of Sicily:...
. In 1073, the Byzantine Emperor
Michael VIIMichael VII Doukas or Ducas , nicknamed Parapinakēs, was Byzantine emperor from 1071 to 1078....
sent an envoy to Robert offering the hand of his son
ConstantineConstantine Doukas or Ducas , was Byzantine co-emperor from c. 1075 to 1078 and from 1081 to 1087. He was the son of Emperor Michael VII Doukas and his Georgian wife Maria of Alania....
to Robert's daughter Helena. Guiscard accepted the offer and sent his daughter to
ConstantinopleConstantinople was the imperial capital of the Roman Empire , the Byzantine/Eastern Roman Empire , the Latin Empire , and the Ottoman Empire...
. However, in 1078, Michael was overthrown by Nicephorus Botaneiates, an event that destroyed any chances Helena had for the throne. This gave Robert a motive to invade the empire claiming his daughter had been mistreated; however, his intervention was delayed by a revolt in Italy.
Robert conscripted all men of a fighting age into the army, which he refitted. Meanwhile, he sent an ambassador to the Byzantine court with orders to demand proper treatment for Helena and to win over the Domestic of the Schools, Alexius. The results of these attempts remain unknown, but the ambassador fell under Alexius' charm and as he was returning to Italy, he heard of Alexius' successful coup against Botaneiates, by which he became Alexius I Comnenus.
When the ambassador returned, he urged Robert to make peace, claiming that Alexius wanted nothing but friendship with the Normans. Robert had no intention of peace; he sent his son Bohemond with an advance force towards Greece and Bohemond landed at
Aulon-In France:* Aulon, Creuse, a commune of the Creuse département* Aulon, Haute-Garonne, a commune of the Haute-Garonne département* Aulon, Hautes-Pyrénées, a commune of the Hautes-Pyrénées département-In Ancient Greece and Rome:...
, with Robert following shortly after.
Prelude
The Norman fleet of 150 ships including 60
horse transportsHorse transports in the Middle Ages were boats used for effective means of transporting horses over long distances, whether for war or general transport...
set off towards the Byzantine Empire at the end of May 1081. The army numbered 30,000 men, backed up by 1,300 Norman knights. The fleet sailed to
AvalonaVlorë or Vlora is the second largest port city of Albania, after Durrës, with a population of about 94,000 .-Names:...
in Byzantine territory; they were joined by several ships from
RagusaThe Republic of Ragusa, or Republic of Dubrovnik, was a maritime republic centered on the city of Dubrovnik in Dalmatia , that existed from the 14th century AD until the year 1808...
, a republic in the
BalkansThe Balkans is a geopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe...
who were enemies of the Byzantines.
Robert soon left Avalona and sailed to the island of
CorfuCorfu is a Greek island in the Ionian Sea. It is the second largest of the Ionian Islands, and its northern part lies off the coast of Sarandë, Albania from which it is separated by straits varying in breadth from 3 to 23 km , including one near ancient Butrint, while its southern part lies...
, which surrendered because of a small garrison. Having won a bridgehead and a clear path for reinforcements from Italy, he advanced on the city of
DyrrhachiumDurrës is the second-largest city of Albania. It is the most ancient and one of the most economically important cities of Albania. It is located on the central Albanian coast, about west of the capital Tirana. It is situated at one of the narrower points of the Adriatic Sea, opposite the Italian...
, the capital and chief port of
IllyriaIllyria was in Classical antiquity a region in the western part of today's Balkan Peninsula, inhabited by the Illyrians, a heterogeneous coalition of tribes, about whom very little is known, though a number of them are assumed to have been united by a common Illyrian language.Illyria and the...
. The city was well defended on a long, narrow peninsula running parallel to the coast, but separated by marshlands. Guiscard brought his army onto the peninsula and pitched camp outside the city walls. However, as Robert's fleet sailed to Dyrrhachium, it was hit by a storm and lost several ships.
Meanwhile, when Alexius heard that the Normans were preparing to invade Byzantine territory, he sent an ambassador to the
DogeThe Doge was the chief magistrate and leader of the Most Serene Republic of Venice for over a thousand years. Doges of Venice were elected for life by the city-state's aristocracy. Commonly the person selected as Doge was the shrewdest elder in the city...
of
VeniceThe Most Serene Republic of Venice or Venetian Republic was a state originating from the city of Venice in Northeastern Italy. It existed for over a millennium, from the late 7th century AD until the year 1797...
,
Domenico SelvoDomenico Selvo was the 31st Doge of Venice, serving from 1071 to 1084. During his reign as Doge, his domestic policies, the alliances that he forged, and the battles that the Venetian military won and lost laid the foundations for much of the subsequent foreign and domestic policy of the Republic...
, requesting aid and offering trading rights in return. The Doge, alarmed by Norman control of the
Strait of OtrantoThe Strait of Otranto connects the Adriatic Sea with the Ionian Sea. Its width is 45-55 nautical mile . The strait is named after the Italian city of Otranto.- History :...
, took command of the Venetian fleet and sailed at once, surprising the Norman fleet under the command of Bohemond as night was falling. The Normans counter-attacked tenaciously, but their inexperience in naval combat betrayed them. The experienced Venetian navy attacked in a close
formationA tactical formation is the arrangement or deployment of moving military forces such as infantry, cavalry, AFVs, military aircraft, or naval vessels...
known as "sea harbour" and together with their use of
Greek fireGreek fire was an incendiary weapon used by the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantines typically used it in naval battles to great effect as it could continue burning even on water. It provided a technological advantage, and was responsible for many key Byzantine military victories, most notably the...
"bombs", the Norman line scattered, and the Venetian fleet sailed into Dyrrhachium's harbour.
Siege of Dyrrhachium
Robert was not discouraged by this naval defeat, and began his siege of Dyrrhachium. In command of the garrison at Dyrrhachium was the experienced general George Palaeologus, sent by Alexius with orders to hold out at all costs while Alexius himself mustered an army to relieve the city.
Meanwhile, a Byzantine fleet arrived and – after joining with the Venetian fleet – attacked the Norman fleet, which was again routed. The garrison at Dyrrhachium managed to hold out all summer, despite Robert's catapults, ballistae and
siege towerA siege tower is a specialized siege engine, constructed to protect assailants and ladders while approaching the defensive walls of a fortification. The tower was often rectangular with four wheels and a height roughly equal to that of the wall or sometimes higher to allow archers to stand on top...
. The garrison made continuous sallies from the city; on one occasion, Palaeologus fought all day with an arrowhead in his skull. Another sally succeeded in destroying Robert's siege tower.
Robert's camp was struck by disease; according to contemporary historian Anna Comnena up to 10,000 men died, including 500 knights. Even so, the situation of the Dyrrhachium garrison grew desperate because of the effects of Norman siege weapons. Alexius learned of this while he was in Salonica with his army so he advanced in full force against the Normans. According to Comnena, Alexius had about 20,000 men; historian John Haldon puts the army's size between 18,000 to 20,000 men. It consisted of
ThracianThrace is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe. As a geographical concept, Thrace designates a region bounded on the north by the Balkan Mountains, on the south by the Rhodope Mountains and the Aegean Sea and on the east by the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara...
and Macedonian
tagmaThe tagma is a term for a military unit of battalion size. The best-known use of the term however refers to the elite regiments comprising the central imperial army of the middle and late Byzantine Empire.-History and role:...
ta, which numbered about 5,000 men; the elite
excubitorsThe Excubitors were the imperial guards of the early Byzantine emperors, and later one of the elite tagmatic units.- History :...
and vestiaritae units, which numbered around 1,000 men; a force of so-called Manichaeans (Bogomil heretics organized into military units), which comprised 2,800 men,
ThessalianThessaly is one of the 13 peripheries of Greece, and is further sub-divided into 4 prefectures. The capital of the periphery and traditional geographical region is Larissa. Together with the regions of Macedonia and Thrace, it is often referred to unofficially as Northern Greece...
cavalryCavalry were soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback in combat. Cavalry were historically the second oldest and most mobile of the combat arms...
, Balkan
conscriptsConscription is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by an established authority. It is most often used in the specific sense of requiring citizens to serve in the armed forces...
,
ArmeniaArmenia , officially the Republic of Armenia , is a landlocked mountainous country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia...
n
infantryInfantrymen are soldiers who are specifically trained for the role of fighting on foot to engage the enemy face to face and have historically borne the brunt of the casualties of combat in wars. As the oldest branch of the Combat Arms they are the backbone of armies...
and other light troops. As well as the native troops, the Byzantines were joined by 2,000 Turkish and 1,000 Frankish
mercenariesA mercenary is a professional soldier hired by a foreign army, as opposed to a soldier enlisted in the armed forces of a sovereign state. He or she takes part in armed conflict on many different scales, and is "motivated to take part in the hostilities essentially by the desire for private gain...
, about 1,000 Varangians and 7,000 Turkish
auxiliariesAn auxiliary force is a group affiliated with, but not part of, a military or police organization. In some cases, auxiliaries are armed forces operating in the same manner as regular soldiers...
sent by the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm. Alexius also withdrew the tagmas from
Heraclea PonticaHeraclea Pontica , an ancient city on the coast of Bithynia in Asia Minor, at the mouth of the river Lycus...
and the remaining Byzantine holdings in Asia Minor and by doing so, he effectively left them to be overrun by the Turks.
Initial moves
Alexius advanced from Salonica and pitched camp on the river Charzanes near Dyrrhachium on 15 October. He held a war council there and sought advice from his senior officers; among them was George Palaeologus, who had managed to sneak out of the city. A majority of the senior officers, including Palaeologus, urged caution, noting that time was with the Emperor. Alexius, however, favoured an immediate assault, hoping to catch Guiscard's army from the rear, while they were still besieging the city. Alexius moved his army to the hills opposite the city, planning to attack the Normans the next day.
Guiscard, however, had been informed of Alexius' arrival by his scouts and on the night of the 17 October, he moved his army from the peninsula to the mainland. Upon learning of Guiscard's move, Alexius revised his battle plan. He split his army into three divisions, with the left wing under the command of Gregorios Pakourianios, the right wing under the command of
Nikephoros MelissenosNikephoros Melissenos or Nicephorus Melissenus was one of many eleventh-century Byzantine generals who tried to take the throne.Nicephorus had married Eudocia Comnenos. Her brother Alexius Comnenos was ordered to march against him, Alexius fled west instead of east and had himself declared emperor...
, and himself in command of the centre. Guiscard formed his battle line opposite Alexius', with the right wing under the command of the Count of Giovinazzo, the left under Bohemond and Guiscard facing Alexius in the centre.
The Varangians had been ordered to march just in front of the main line with a strong division of archers a little behind them. The archers had been commanded to move in front of the Varangians and fire a volley before retreating behind them. The archers continued this tactic until the army neared contact.
As the opposing armies closed in, Guiscard sent a detachment of cavalry positioned in the centre to feint an attack on the Byzantine positions. Guiscard hoped the feint would draw up the Varangians; however, this plan failed when the cavalry was forced back by the archers. The Norman right wing suddenly charged forward to the point where the Byzantine left and centre met, directing its attack against the Varangian left flank. The Varangians stood their ground while the Byzantine left, including some of Alexius' elite troops, attacked the Normans. The Norman formation disintegrated and the routed Normans fled towards the beach. There, according to Comnena, they were rallied by Guiscard's wife,
SikelgaitaSikelgaita was a Lombard princess, the daughter of Guaimar IV, Prince of Salerno, and second wife of Robert Guiscard, Duke of Apulia....
, described as "like another
PallasIn Greek mythology, Pallas was the daughter of Triton. Acting as a foster parent to Zeus’ daughter Athena, Triton raised her alongside his own daughter Pallas. During a fight between the two goddesses, Athena was protected from harm by Zeus, however she mortally wounded Pallas. Out of sadness...
, if not a second
AthenaIn Greek mythology, Athena is the goddess of wisdom, peace, warfare, strategy, handicrafts and reason, shrewd companion of heroes and the goddess of heroic endeavour...
".
Byzantine collapse
In the meantime, the Byzantine right and centre had been engaging in skirmishes with the Normans opposite them. However, with the collapse of the Norman right, the knights were in danger of being outflanked. At this point, the Varangians (mainly
Anglo-SaxonsAnglo-Saxons is the term usually used to describe the invading Germanic tribes in the south and east of Great Britain from the early 5th century AD, and their creation of the English nation, to the Norman conquest of 1066...
who had left
EnglandEngland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west and the North Sea to the east, with the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
after the Norman Conquest) joined in the pursuit of the Norman right. With their massive
battle axeA battle axe is an axe specifically designed for use in melee. Battle axes were specialized versions of utility axes. Many were suitable for use in one hand, while others were larger and were wielded two-handed...
s, the Varangians attacked the Norman knights, who were driven away after their horses panicked. The Varangians soon became separated from the main force and exhausted so they were in no position to resist an assault. Guiscard sent a strong force of
spearA spear is a pole weapon consisting of a shaft, usually of wood, with a sharpened head. The head may be simply the sharpened end of the shaft itself, as is the case with bamboo spears, or it may be of another material fastened to the shaft, such as obsidian, iron or bronze...
men and crossbowmen against the Varangian flank and inflicted heavy casualties on them. The few remaining Varangians fled into the church of the Archangel Michael. The Normans immediately set the church on fire, and all Varangians perished in the blaze.
Meanwhile, George Palaeologus
sortieSortie is a term for deployment or dispatch of one military unit, be it an aircraft, ship, or troops from a strongpoint. The sortie, whether by one or more aircraft or vessels, usually has a specific mission....
d out of Dyrrhachium, but failed to save the situation. Worse, Alexius's
vassalA vassal in the terminology that both preceded and accompanied the feudalism of medieval Europe, is one who enters into mutual obligations with a monarch, usually of military support and mutual protection, in exchange for certain guarantees, which came to include the terrain held as a fief. By...
, King Constantine Bodin of
DukljaDuklja or Diokletija was a Serbian medieval state with hereditary lands roughly encompassing the territories of the modern-state Montenegro and bordering with Travunia at Kotor...
, betrayed him. The Turks who had been lent to him by the Seljuk Sultan
Suleyman ISuleyman I founded an independent Seljuk Turkish state in Anatolia and ruled as Seljuk Sultan of Rûm from 1077 until his death in 1086....
followed Constantine's example and deserted.
Deprived of his left wing (still in pursuit of the Norman right) Alexius was exposed in the centre. Guiscard sent his heavy cavalry against the Byzantine centre. They first routed the Byzantine skirmishers before breaking into small detachments and smashing into various points of the Byzantine line. This charge broke the Byzantine lines and caused them to rout. The imperial camp, which had been left unguarded, fell to the Normans.
Alexius and his guards resisted as long as they could before retreating. As they retreated, Alexius was separated from his guard and was attacked by Norman soldiers. While escaping he was wounded in his forehead and lost a lot of blood, but eventually made it back to
OhridOhrid is a city on the eastern shore of Lake Ohrid in the Republic of Macedonia. It has about 42,000 inhabitants, making it the seventh largest city in the country. The city is the seat of Ohrid Municipality. Ohrid is notable for having once 365 churches, one for each day of the year and has been...
, where he regrouped his army.
Aftermath
The battle was a serious defeat for Alexius. Historian Jonathan Harris states that the defeat was "every bit as severe as that at
ManzikertThe Battle of Manzikert, or Malazgirt, was fought between the Byzantine Empire and Seljuq forces led by Alp Arslan on August 26, 1071 near Manzikert . It resulted in one of the most decisive defeats of the Byzantine Empire and the capture of the Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes...
." He lost about 5,000 of his men, including most of the Varangians. Norman losses are unknown, but John Haldon claims they are substantial as both wings broke and fled. Historian Robert Holmes states: "The new knightly tactic of charging with the lance
couched - tucked firmly under the arm to unite the impact of man and horse - proved a battle-winner."
George Palaeologus had not been able to re-enter the city after the battle and left with the main force. The defence of the
citadelA citadel is a fortress for protecting a town, sometimes incorporating a castle. The term derives from the same Latin root as the word "city", civis, meaning citizen....
was left to the Venetians, while the city itself was left to an
AlbanianAlbanians are a people from southeast Europe who live in Albania and neighboring countries. They speak the Albanian language. About half of them live in Albania, with other large groups residing in Kosovo, the Republic of Macedonia, Serbia, and Montenegro...
, Komiskortes.
In February 1082, Dyrrhachium fell after a Venetian or
AmalfiAmalfi is a town and commune in the province of Salerno, in the region of Campania, Italy, on the Gulf of Salerno, c. 35 km southeast of Naples. It lies at the mouth of a deep ravine, at the foot of Monte Cerreto , surrounded by dramatic cliffs and coastal scenery...
an citizen opened the gates to the Normans. The Norman army proceeded to take most of northern Greece without facing much resistance. While Guiscard was in
KastoriaKastoria is a city in northern Greece in the periphery of West Macedonia. It is the capital of Kastoria Prefecture, located at . The town's population is estimated as some 20,660 people . It is situated on a promontory on the western shore of Lake Orestiada, in a valley surrounded by limestone...
, messengers arrived from Italy, bearing news that
ApuliaApulia is a region in southeastern Italy bordering the Adriatic Sea in the east, the Ionian Sea to the southeast, and the Strait of Òtranto and Gulf of Taranto in the south. Its southern portion known as Salento, a peninsula, forms a high heel on the "boot" of Italy...
,
CalabriaCalabria , in antiquity known as Bruttium, is a region in southern Italy, south of Naples, located at the "toe" of the Italian peninsula. It is bounded to the north by the region of Basilicata, to the south-west by the region of Sicily, to the west by the Tyrrhenian Sea, and to the east by the...
, and
CampaniaCampania is a region of southern Italy in Europe. The region has a population of around 5.8 million people, making it the second-most-populous region of Italy; its total area of 13,595 km² makes it the most densely populated region in the country...
were in revolt. He also learned that the
Holy Roman EmperorThe Holy Roman Emperor is a term used by historians to denote a Middle Ages ruler, who as German King had in addition received the title of "Emperor of the Romans" from the Pope of the Holy Roman Church, and after the 16th century, the elected monarch governing the Holy Roman Empire, a Central...
,
Henry IVHenry IV was King of Germany from 1056 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1084 until his forced abdication in 1105. He was the third emperor of the Salian dynasty and one of the most powerful and important figures of the 11th century...
, was at the gates of
RomeRome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated municipality , with over 2.7 million residents in , while the population of the urban area is estimated by Eurostat to be 3.46 million. The metropolitan area of Rome is estimated by OECD to have a population of 3.7 million...
and besieging
Pope Gregory VIIPope Saint Gregory VII , born Hildebrand of Sovana , was Pope from April 22, 1073, until his death...
, a Norman ally. Alexius had negotiated with Henry and given him 360,000 gold pieces in return for an alliance. Henry responded by invading Italy and attacking the Pope. Guiscard rushed to Italy, leaving Bohemond in command of the army in Greece.
Alexius, desperate for money, ordered the confiscation of all the church's treasure. With this money, Alexius mustered an army near Thessalonica and went to fight Bohemond. However, Bohemond defeated Alexius in two battles: one near
ArtaArta is a city with a rich history in north-western Greece, capital of the Arta Prefecture which is part of the Epirus province. The city was known in ancient times as Amvrakia . Arta is famous for its old bridge located over the Arachthos river, situated west of downtown...
and the other near
IoanninaIoannina is a city of Epirus, north-western Greece, with a metropolitan population of approximately 100,000, and lies at an elevation of 600 metres above sea level. It is the capital of Ioannina Prefecture and of Epirus, lying on the western side of lake Pamvotis...
. This left Bohemond in control of
MacedoniaMacedonia is a geographical and historical region of the Balkan peninsula in southeastern Europe. Its boundaries have changed considerably over time, but the region is nowadays held to include parts of five Balkan countries: Greece, the Republic of Macedonia, Bulgaria, Albania and Serbia...
and nearly all of
ThessalyThessaly is one of the 13 peripheries of Greece, and is further sub-divided into 4 prefectures. The capital of the periphery and traditional geographical region is Larissa. Together with the regions of Macedonia and Thrace, it is often referred to unofficially as Northern Greece...
. Bohemond advanced with his army against the city of
LarissaLarissa is a city and the capital of the Thessaly periphery of Greece, and capital of the Larissa Prefecture. It is a principal agricultural centre and a national transportation hub, linked by rail with the port of Volos and with Thessaloniki and Athens...
. Meanwhile, Alexius had mustered a new army and with 7,000 Seljuk Turks sent by the Sultan, he advanced on the Normans at Larissa and defeated them. The demoralised and unpaid Norman army returned to the coast and sailed back to Italy. Meanwhile, Alexius granted the Venetians a commercial colony in Constantinople as well as exemption from trading duties in return for their renewed aid. They responded by recapturing Dyrrhachium and Corfu and returning them to the empire. These victories returned the Empire to its previous
status quoStatus quo, commonly used form of the original Latin "statu quo" literally "the state in which", is a Latin term meaning the current or existing state of affairs. To maintain the status quo is to keep the things the way they presently are...
and marked the beginning of the
Komnenian restorationThe Komnenian restoration is the term used by Byzantinists to describe the military, financial and territorial recovery of the Byzantine Empire under the Komnenian dynasty, from the accession of Alexios I Komnenos in 1081, to the death of Manuel I Komnenos in 1180...
.
Sources
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Anna Komnene, latinized as Comnena was a Byzantine princess and scholar, daughter of the Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos and Irene Doukaina...
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Matthew Ray Bennett is a Canadian actor, writer and director. At the age of 20 he moved from his hometown of Toronto, Ontario to Vancouver, British Columbia to pursue an acting career...
& Nicholas HooperNicholas Hooper is a British film and television music composer and conductor. In the past, he has scored the award-winning BBC productions Land of the Tiger and Andes to Amazon, as well as the TV movies The Tichborne Claimant, My Family and Other Animals, and The Girl in the Café, among others...
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Christopher Gravett is a British historian specialising in the military history of the Middle Ages, with an interest in the arms and armour of the period.Gravett has written a number of books and acts as an advisor for film and television projects...
and David NicolleDavid Nicolle is an historian specialising in the Military history of the Middle Ages, with a particular interest in the Middle East.Nicolle has worked for the BBC Arabic Service, and also lectured in World and Islamic art and architecture at Yarmouk University, Jordan...
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Jonathan Harris , was an American stage and character actor. Two of his best-known roles were as the timid accountant Bradford Webster in The Third Man, and the comic villain Dr. Zachary Smith, in the 1960s sci-fi television series, Lost in Space...
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John Julius Cooper, 2nd Viscount Norwich CVO — known as John Julius Norwich — is an English historian, travel writer and television personality.-Early life:...
, (1995). Byzantium: The Decline and Fall. London: Viking. ISBN 0-670-82377-5.
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