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In chemistry
Chemistry

Chemistry is the science concerned with the composition, structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions....
, a base is most commonly thought of as an aqueous substance that can accept proton
Proton

The proton is a subatomic particle with an electric charge of +1 elementary charge. It is found in the nucleus of each atom but is also stable by itself and has a second identity as the hydrogen ion, H+....
s. A base is also often referred to as an alkali if OH- ions are involved. This refers to the Brønsted-Lowry theory
Acid-base reaction theories

An acid-base reaction is a chemical reaction that occurs between an acid and a base . Several concepts exist which provide alternative definitions for the reaction mechanisms involved and their application in solving related problems....
 of acids and bases. Alternate definitions of bases include electron pair
Electron pair

In chemistry, an electron pair consists of two electrons that occupy the same molecular orbital but have opposite spin_s.Because electrons are fermions, the Pauli exclusion principle forbids these particles from having exactly the same quantum numbers....
 donors (Lewis), as sources of hydroxide anions (Arrhenius
Svante Arrhenius

Svante August Arrhenius was a Swedish scientist, originally a physicist, but often referred to as a chemist, and one of the founders of the science of physical chemistry....
). In addition to this, bases can commonly be thought of as any chemical compound that, when dissolved in water, gives a solution with a pH
PH

pH is a measure of the Acid or Base of a solution. It is defined as the cologarithm of the Activity of dissolved hydrogen ions . Hydrogen ion activity coefficients cannot be measured experimentally, so they are based on theoretical calculations....
 higher than 7.0. Examples of simple bases are sodium hydroxide
Sodium hydroxide

Sodium hydroxide , also known as lye, caustic soda and sodium hydrate, is a caustic metallic Base . Sodium hydroxide forms a strong alkaline solution when dissolved in a solvent such as water, however, only the hydroxide ion is basic....
 and ammonia
Ammonia

Ammonia is a chemical compound with the chemical formula nitrogenhydrogen. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor....
.

Bases can be thought of as the chemical opposite of acid
Acid

An acid is traditionally considered any chemical compound that, when dissolved in water, gives a solution with a hydrogen ion Activity greater than in pure water, i.e....
s.






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In chemistry
Chemistry

Chemistry is the science concerned with the composition, structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions....
, a base is most commonly thought of as an aqueous substance that can accept proton
Proton

The proton is a subatomic particle with an electric charge of +1 elementary charge. It is found in the nucleus of each atom but is also stable by itself and has a second identity as the hydrogen ion, H+....
s. A base is also often referred to as an alkali if OH- ions are involved. This refers to the Brønsted-Lowry theory
Acid-base reaction theories

An acid-base reaction is a chemical reaction that occurs between an acid and a base . Several concepts exist which provide alternative definitions for the reaction mechanisms involved and their application in solving related problems....
 of acids and bases. Alternate definitions of bases include electron pair
Electron pair

In chemistry, an electron pair consists of two electrons that occupy the same molecular orbital but have opposite spin_s.Because electrons are fermions, the Pauli exclusion principle forbids these particles from having exactly the same quantum numbers....
 donors (Lewis), as sources of hydroxide anions (Arrhenius
Svante Arrhenius

Svante August Arrhenius was a Swedish scientist, originally a physicist, but often referred to as a chemist, and one of the founders of the science of physical chemistry....
). In addition to this, bases can commonly be thought of as any chemical compound that, when dissolved in water, gives a solution with a pH
PH

pH is a measure of the Acid or Base of a solution. It is defined as the cologarithm of the Activity of dissolved hydrogen ions . Hydrogen ion activity coefficients cannot be measured experimentally, so they are based on theoretical calculations....
 higher than 7.0. Examples of simple bases are sodium hydroxide
Sodium hydroxide

Sodium hydroxide , also known as lye, caustic soda and sodium hydrate, is a caustic metallic Base . Sodium hydroxide forms a strong alkaline solution when dissolved in a solvent such as water, however, only the hydroxide ion is basic....
 and ammonia
Ammonia

Ammonia is a chemical compound with the chemical formula nitrogenhydrogen. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor....
.

Bases can be thought of as the chemical opposite of acid
Acid

An acid is traditionally considered any chemical compound that, when dissolved in water, gives a solution with a hydrogen ion Activity greater than in pure water, i.e....
s. A reaction between an acid and base is called neutralization. Bases and acid
Acid

An acid is traditionally considered any chemical compound that, when dissolved in water, gives a solution with a hydrogen ion Activity greater than in pure water, i.e....
s are seen as opposites because the effect of an acid is to increase the hydronium
Hydronium

In chemistry, hydronium is the common name for the aqueous cation hydrogen3oxygen+ derived from protonation of water. It is the simplest type of an oxonium ion....
 ion (H3O+) concentration
Concentration

In chemistry, concentration is the measure of how much of a given chemical substance there is mixed with another substance. This can apply to any sort of chemical mixture, but most frequently the concept is limited to homogeneous solutions, where it refers to the amount of solute in the solvent....
 in water, whereas bases reduce this concentration. Bases react with acids to produce water
Water

Water is a common chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of life. In typical usage, water refers only to its liquid form or States of matter, but the substance also has a solid state, ice, and a gaseous state, water vapor or steam....
 and salts (or their solutions).

Definitions

A strong
Strong

Strong may refer to:...
 base is a base which hydrolyzes
Hydrolysis

Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction during which one or more water are split into hydrogen and hydroxide ions which may go on to participate in further reactions....
 completely, raising the pH
PH

pH is a measure of the Acid or Base of a solution. It is defined as the cologarithm of the Activity of dissolved hydrogen ions . Hydrogen ion activity coefficients cannot be measured experimentally, so they are based on theoretical calculations....
 of the solution towards 14. Strong bases, like strong acids, attack living tissue and cause serious burns. They react differently to skin than acids do, so while strong acids are corrosive
Corrosive

A corrosive substance is one that will destroy or irreversibly damage another substance with which it comes in contact. The main hazards to people include damage to eyes, skin and tissue under the skin, but inhalation or ingestion of a corrosive substance can damage the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts....
, we say that strong bases are caustic. Superbase
Superbase

In chemistry, a superbase is an extremely strong Base . There is no commonly accepted definition for what qualifies as a superbase, but most chemists would accept sodium hydroxide as a 'benchmark' base just as sulfuric acid is a 'benchmark' acid ....
s are a class of especially basic compounds and non-nucleophilic bases are a special class of strong bases with poor nucleophilicity. Bases may also be weak base
Weak base

In chemistry, a weak base is a chemical base that does not ionize fully in an aqueous solution. As Bronsted-Lowry bases are proton acceptors, a weak base may also be defined as a chemical base in which protonation is incomplete....
s such as ammonia
Ammonia

Ammonia is a chemical compound with the chemical formula nitrogenhydrogen. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor....
, which is used for cleaning. Arrhenius bases are water-soluble and these solutions always have a pH
PH

pH is a measure of the Acid or Base of a solution. It is defined as the cologarithm of the Activity of dissolved hydrogen ions . Hydrogen ion activity coefficients cannot be measured experimentally, so they are based on theoretical calculations....
 greater than 7. An alkali
Alkali

In chemistry, an alkali is a Base , Ionic compound salt of an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal Chemical element. Alkalis are best known for being Base s that dissolve in water....
 is a special example of a base, where in an aqueous environment, hydroxide ions
Hydroxide

In chemistry, hydroxide is the name for the Diatomic molecule anion OH-, consisting of oxygen and hydrogen atoms, usually derived from the Dissociation of a base ....
 (also viewed as OH-) are donated. There are other more generalized and advanced definitions of acids and bases
Acid-base reaction theories

An acid-base reaction is a chemical reaction that occurs between an acid and a base . Several concepts exist which provide alternative definitions for the reaction mechanisms involved and their application in solving related problems....
.

The notion of a base as a concept in chemistry was first introduced by the French chemist Guillaume François Rouelle
Guillaume François Rouelle

Guillaume Fran?ois Rouelle was a France chemistry and apothecary. In 1754 he introduced the concept of a base into chemistry, as a substance which reacts with an acid to give it solid form ....
 in 1754. He noted that acids, which in those days were mostly volatile liquids (like acetic acid
Acetic acid

Acetic acid, CH3COOH, also known as ethanoic acid, is an organic acid which gives vinegar its sour taste and pungent smell. Pure, water-free acetic acid is a colourless liquid that absorbs water from the environment , and freezes at 16.7 Celsius to a colourless crystalline solid....
), turned into solid salts only when combined with specific substances. These substances form a concrete base for the salt and hence the name.

Properties

Some general properties of bases include:

  • Slimy or soapy feel on fingers, due to saponification
    Saponification

    Saponification is the hydrolysis of an ester under base conditions to form an alcohol and the salt of a carboxylic acid . Saponification is commonly used to refer to the reaction of a metallic alkali with a fat or oil to form soap....
     of the lipids in human skin
  • Concentrated or strong bases are caustic
    Corrosive

    A corrosive substance is one that will destroy or irreversibly damage another substance with which it comes in contact. The main hazards to people include damage to eyes, skin and tissue under the skin, but inhalation or ingestion of a corrosive substance can damage the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts....
     (corrosive) on organic matter and react violently with acidic substances
  • Aqueous solutions or molten bases dissociate in ions and conduct electricity.
  • Reactions with indicators: bases turn litmus paper blue and phenolphthalein
    Phenolphthalein

    Phenolphthalein is a chemical compound with the chemical formula carbon20hydrogen14oxygen4 . Often used in titrations, it turns colorless in acidic solutions and pink in base solutions....
     pink


Bases and pH

The pH
PH

pH is a measure of the Acid or Base of a solution. It is defined as the cologarithm of the Activity of dissolved hydrogen ions . Hydrogen ion activity coefficients cannot be measured experimentally, so they are based on theoretical calculations....
 of (impure) water is a measure of its acidity. In pure water, about one in ten million molecules dissociate into hydronium ions (H3O+) and hydroxide ions
Hydroxide

In chemistry, hydroxide is the name for the Diatomic molecule anion OH-, consisting of oxygen and hydrogen atoms, usually derived from the Dissociation of a base ....
 (OH−), according to the following equation:

2H2O(l) ? H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)


The concentration
Concentration

In chemistry, concentration is the measure of how much of a given chemical substance there is mixed with another substance. This can apply to any sort of chemical mixture, but most frequently the concept is limited to homogeneous solutions, where it refers to the amount of solute in the solvent....
, measured in molarity (M or mole
Mole (unit)

The mole is a Units of measurement of amount of substance: it is an SI base unit, and one of the few units used to measure this physical quantity....
s per dm³), of the ions is indicated as [H3O+] and [OH−]; their product is the dissociation constant
Dissociation constant

In chemistry and biochemistry, a dissociation constant is a specific type of equilibrium constant that measures the propensity of a larger object to separate reversibly into smaller components, as...
 of water with and has the value 10−7 M. The pH is defined as −log [H3O+]; thus, pure water has a pH of 7. (These numbers are correct at 23 °C and slightly different at other temperatures.)

A base accepts (removes) hydronium ions (H3O+) from the solution, or donates hydroxide ions
Hydroxide

In chemistry, hydroxide is the name for the Diatomic molecule anion OH-, consisting of oxygen and hydrogen atoms, usually derived from the Dissociation of a base ....
 (OH-) to the solution. Both actions will lower the concentration of hydronium ions, and thus raise pH. By contrast, an acid donates H3O+ ions to the solution or accepts OH−, thus lowering pH.

For example, if 1 mole of sodium hydroxide
Sodium hydroxide

Sodium hydroxide , also known as lye, caustic soda and sodium hydrate, is a caustic metallic Base . Sodium hydroxide forms a strong alkaline solution when dissolved in a solvent such as water, however, only the hydroxide ion is basic....
 (40 g
G

G is the seventh letter in the Latin alphabet. Its name in English language is spelled gee....
) is dissolved in water to make 1 litre of solution, the concentration of hydroxide ions becomes [OH−] = 1 mol/L. Therefore [H+] = 10−14 mol/L, and pH = −log 10−14 = 14. Note that in this calculation, it is assumed that the activity
Activity (chemistry)

In chemical thermodynamics activity is a measure of the ?effective concentration? of a species in a mixture. By convention, it is a dimensionless quantity....
 is equivalent to the concentration, which is not realistic at concentrations over 0.1 mol dm-3.

The base dissociation constant or Kb is a measure of basicity. pKb is the negative log of Kb and related to the pKa
PKA

PKA or pKa may be:* Protein kinase A, a cAMP activated protein kinase* pKa, the symbol for Acid dissociation constant...
 by the simple relationship pKa + pKb = 14.

Alkalinity
Alkalinity

Alkalinity or AT is a measure of the ability of a solution to neutralize acids to the equivalence point of carbonate or bicarbonate....
 is a measure of the ability of a solution to neutralize acids to the equivalence points of carbonates or bicarbonates.

Neutralization of acids


When dissolved in water, the strong base sodium hydroxide
Sodium hydroxide

Sodium hydroxide , also known as lye, caustic soda and sodium hydrate, is a caustic metallic Base . Sodium hydroxide forms a strong alkaline solution when dissolved in a solvent such as water, however, only the hydroxide ion is basic....
 decomposes into hydroxide and sodium ions:

NaOH ? Na+ + OH-


and similarly, in water hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen chloride

The Chemical compound hydrogen chloride has the chemical formula HydrogenChlorine. At room temperature, it is a colorless gas, which forms white fumes of hydrochloric acid upon contact with atmospheric humidity....
 forms hydronium and chloride ions:

HCl + H2O ? H3O+ + Cl-


When the two solutions are mixed, the H3O+ and OH− ions combine to form water molecules:

H3O+ + OH- ? 2 H2O


If equal quantities of NaOH and HCl are dissolved, the base and the acid exactly neutralize, leaving only NaCl, effectively table salt, in solution.

Weak bases, such as soda or egg white, should be used to neutralize any acid spills. Neutralizing acid spills with strong bases, such as sodium hydroxide
Sodium hydroxide

Sodium hydroxide , also known as lye, caustic soda and sodium hydrate, is a caustic metallic Base . Sodium hydroxide forms a strong alkaline solution when dissolved in a solvent such as water, however, only the hydroxide ion is basic....
 or potassium hydroxide
Potassium hydroxide

Potassium hydroxide is the inorganic compound with the formula potassiumhydroxide. Along with sodium hydroxide, this colourless solid is a prototypical "strong base"....
 can cause a violent exothermic reaction, and the base itself can cause just as much damage as the original acid spill.

Alkalinity of non-hydroxides

Bases are generally compounds that can neutralize an amount of acids. Both sodium carbonate
Sodium carbonate

Sodium carbonate , , is a sodium salt of carbonic acid. It most commonly occurs as a crystalline heptahydrate, which readily efflorescence to form a white powder, the monohydrate....
 and ammonia
Ammonia

Ammonia is a chemical compound with the chemical formula nitrogenhydrogen. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor....
 are bases, although neither of these substances contains OH− groups. Both compounds accept H+ when dissolved in water:

Na2CO3 + H2O ? 2 Na+ + HCO3- + OH-
NH3 + H2O ? NH4+ + OH-


From this, a pH
PH

pH is a measure of the Acid or Base of a solution. It is defined as the cologarithm of the Activity of dissolved hydrogen ions . Hydrogen ion activity coefficients cannot be measured experimentally, so they are based on theoretical calculations....
, or acidity, can be calculated for aqueous solutions of bases. Bases also directly act as electron-pair donors themselves:

CO32- + H+ ? HCO3-
NH3 + H+ ? NH4+


Carbon
Carbon

Carbon is a chemical element with chemical symbol C and atomic number 6. As a member of group 14 on the periodic table, it is nonmetallic and tetravalence?making four electrons available to form covalent bond chemical bonds....
 can act as a base as well as nitrogen
Nitrogen

Nitrogen is a chemical element that has the symbol N and atomic number 7 and atomic mass 14.00674?. Elemental nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless and mostly inert diatomic gas at standard conditions, constituting 78% by volume of Earth's atmosphere....
 and oxygen
Oxygen

Oxygen no O2 produced; 2) O2 produced, but absorbed in oceans & seabed rock; 3) O2 starts to gas out of the oceans, but is absorbed by land surfaces and formation of ozone layer; 4-5) O2 sinks filled and the gas accumulates]]...
. This occurs typically in compounds such as butyl lithium
Butyl lithium

Butyl lithium may refer to one of three isomeric organolithium reagents used in chemical synthesis:*n-Butyllithium, abbreviated BuLi or nBuLi...
, alkoxide
Alkoxide

An alkoxide is the conjugate base of an alcohol and therefore consists of an organic group bonded to a negatively charged oxygen atom. They can be written as RO–, where R is the organic substituent....
s, and metal amide
Amide

In chemistry, an amide is one of three kinds of compounds:* the organic chemistry functional group characterized by a carbonyl group linked to a nitrogen atom , or a compound that contains this functional group ; or...
s such as sodium amide
Sodium amide

Sodium amide, commonly called sodamide, is the chemical compound with the chemical formula NaNH2. This solid, which is dangerously reactive toward water, is white when pure, but commercial samples are typically gray due to the presence of small quantities of metallic iron from the manufacturing process....
. Bases of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen without resonance stabilization are usually very strong, or superbase
Superbase

In chemistry, a superbase is an extremely strong Base . There is no commonly accepted definition for what qualifies as a superbase, but most chemists would accept sodium hydroxide as a 'benchmark' base just as sulfuric acid is a 'benchmark' acid ....
s, which cannot exist in a water solution due to the acidity of water. Resonance stabilization, however, enables weaker bases such as carboxylates; for example, sodium acetate
Sodium acetate

Sodium acetate, is the sodium Salt of acetic acid. It is an inexpensive chemical produced in industrial quantities for a wide range of uses....
 is a weak base
Weak base

In chemistry, a weak base is a chemical base that does not ionize fully in an aqueous solution. As Bronsted-Lowry bases are proton acceptors, a weak base may also be defined as a chemical base in which protonation is incomplete....
.

Strong bases

A strong base is a basic chemical compound that is able to deprotonate very weak acids in an acid-base reaction. Compounds with a pKa of more than about 13 are called strong bases. Common examples of strong bases are the hydroxides of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals like NaOH and Ca(OH)2. Very strong bases are even able to deprotonate very weakly acidic C–H groups in the absence of water. Hydroxide compounds in order of strongest to weakest:
  • Potassium hydroxide
    Potassium hydroxide

    Potassium hydroxide is the inorganic compound with the formula potassiumhydroxide. Along with sodium hydroxide, this colourless solid is a prototypical "strong base"....
     (KOH)
  • Barium hydroxide
    Barium hydroxide

    Barium hydroxide is the chemical compound with the chemical formula Ba2. Also known as baryta, it is one of the principal compounds of barium....
     (Ba(OH)2)
  • Caesium hydroxide
    Caesium hydroxide

    Caesium hydroxide is a chemical compound consisting of an atom of caesium and a hydroxide group . It is a powerful base , much like other alkali hydroxide such as sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide....
     (CsOH)
  • Sodium hydroxide
    Sodium hydroxide

    Sodium hydroxide , also known as lye, caustic soda and sodium hydrate, is a caustic metallic Base . Sodium hydroxide forms a strong alkaline solution when dissolved in a solvent such as water, however, only the hydroxide ion is basic....
     (NaOH)
  • Strontium hydroxide
    Strontium hydroxide

    Strontium hydroxide, Sr2, is a caustic alkali composed of one strontium ion and two hydroxide ions. It is synthesized by combining a strontium salt with a strong base....
     (Sr(OH)2)
  • Calcium hydroxide
    Calcium hydroxide

    Calcium hydroxide, traditionally called slaked lime, hydrated lime, or pickling lime, is a chemical compound with the chemical formula Calcium2....
     (Ca(OH)2)
  • Lithium hydroxide
    Lithium hydroxide

    Lithium hydroxide is a corrosive alkali hydroxide. It is a white hygroscopic crystalline material. It is soluble in water, and slightly soluble in ethanol....
     (LiOH)
  • Rubidium hydroxide
    Rubidium hydroxide

    Rubidium Hydroxide is a strong Base and alkali that is formed by one rubidium ion and one hydroxide ion.Rubidium hydroxide does not appear in nature....
     (RbOH)
  • Magnesium hydroxide
    Magnesium hydroxide

    Magnesium hydroxide is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula Mg2. As a suspension in water, it may be referred to as Milk of Magnesia....
     (Mg(OH)2)


The cations of these strong bases appear in the 1st and 2nd groups of the periodic table (alkali and earth alkali metals).

Group 1 salts of carbanions, amides, and hydrides tend to be even stronger bases due the conjugate acids, which are stable hydrocarbons, amines, and water. Usually these bases are created by adding pure alkali metals such as sodium into the conjugate acid. They are called superbase
Superbase

In chemistry, a superbase is an extremely strong Base . There is no commonly accepted definition for what qualifies as a superbase, but most chemists would accept sodium hydroxide as a 'benchmark' base just as sulfuric acid is a 'benchmark' acid ....
s and it is not possible to keep them in water solution, due to the fact they are stronger bases than the hydroxide ion and as such it will deprotonate the conjugate acid water. For example the ethoxide ion (conjugate base of ethanol) in the presence of water will undergo this reaction.

CH3CH2O- + H2O ? CH3CH2OH + OH-

  • Butyl lithium
    Butyl lithium

    Butyl lithium may refer to one of three isomeric organolithium reagents used in chemical synthesis:*n-Butyllithium, abbreviated BuLi or nBuLi...
     (n-BuLi)
  • Lithium diisopropylamide
    Lithium diisopropylamide

    Lithium diisopropylamide is the chemical compound with the formula [2CH]2NLi. Generally abbreviated LDA, it is a strong base used in organic chemistry for the deprotonation of weakly acidic compounds....
     (LDA) (C6H14LiN)
  • Lithium diethylamide (LDEA)
  • Sodium amide
    Sodium amide

    Sodium amide, commonly called sodamide, is the chemical compound with the chemical formula NaNH2. This solid, which is dangerously reactive toward water, is white when pure, but commercial samples are typically gray due to the presence of small quantities of metallic iron from the manufacturing process....
     (NaNH2)
  • Sodium hydride
    Sodium hydride

    Sodium hydride is the chemical compound with the formula NaH. It is primarily used as a strong base in organic synthesis. NaH is representative of the saline hydrides, meaning it is a salt-like hydride, composed of Na+ and H- ions, in contrast to the more molecular hydrides such as borane, methane, ammonia and water....
     (NaH)
  • Lithium bis(trimethylsilyl)amide
    Lithium bis(trimethylsilyl)amide

    Lithium bisamide is the chemical compound with the formula 2NLi. This compound, often called lithium hexamethyldisilazide or LiHMDS, is a strong Base used for deprotonation reactions....
     (((CH3)3Si)2NLi)


Bases as heterogeneous catalysts


Basic substances can be used as insoluble
Solubility

Solubility is often seen as a property of a substance; for instance the solubility of a solid substance usually refers to the concentration of the substance in a liquid that has reached equilibrium with the substance in solid phase ....
 heterogeneous catalysts for chemical reaction
Chemical reaction

A chemical reaction is a process that always results in the interconversion of chemical substances. The substance or substances initially involved in a chemical reaction are called reactants....
s. Examples are metal oxides such as magnesium oxide
Magnesium oxide

Magnesium oxide, or magnesia, is a white solid mineral that occurs naturally as periclase and is a source of magnesium . It has an empirical formula of ....
, calcium oxide
Calcium oxide

Calcium oxide , commonly known as burnt lime, Lime or quicklime, is a widely used chemical compound. It is a white, Caustic and alkaline crystalline solid at room temperature....
, and barium oxide
Barium oxide

Barium oxide, BaO, is a white hygroscopic chemical compound formed by the burning of barium in oxygen, although it is often formed through the decomposition of other barium compounds....
 as well as potassium fluoride
Potassium fluoride

Potassium fluoride is the chemical compound with the formula KF. After hydrogen fluoride, KF is the primary source of the fluoride ion for applications in manufacturing and in chemistry....
 on alumina and some zeolite
Zeolite

Zeolites are Microporous material, aluminosilicate minerals commonly used as commercial absorbents. The term zeolite was originally coined in 1756 by Sweden mineralogist Axel Fredrik Cronstedt, who observed that upon rapidly heating the material stilbite, it produced large amounts of steam from water that had been absorbed by the material....
s. A great deal of transition metal
Transition metal

In chemistry, the term transition metal has two possible meanings:*It commonly refers to any element in the d-block of the periodic table, including the group 12 element elements zinc, cadmium and Mercury ....
s make good catalysts, many of which form basic substances. Basic catalysts have been used for hydrogenation
Hydrogenation

Hydrogenation is the chemical reaction that results from the addition of hydrogen . The process is usually employed to a redox or Saturation organic compounds....
s, the migration of double bonds, in the Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley reduction
Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley reduction

The Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley Reduction in organic chemistry is the organic reduction of ketones to secondary alcohols with aluminumisopropylate catalysis in isopropanol solution ....
, the Michael reaction
Michael reaction

The Michael reaction or Michael addition is the nucleophilic addition of a carbanion to an ?,?-unsaturated carbonyl compound. It belongs to the larger class of conjugate additions....
, and many other reactions.

See also

  • Acid-base reactions
  • Acid
    Acid

    An acid is traditionally considered any chemical compound that, when dissolved in water, gives a solution with a hydrogen ion Activity greater than in pure water, i.e....
    s


External links

  • on acids and bases