The
Arthashastra is an ancient Indian
treatiseA treatise is a formal and systematic written discourse on some subject, generally longer and treating it in greater depth than an essay, and more concerned with investigating or exposing the principles of the subject.-Noteworthy treatises:...
on
statecraftPublic Administration houses the implementation of government policy and an academic discipline that studies this implementation and that prepares civil servants for this work. As a "field of inquiry with a diverse scope" its "fundamental goal.....
,
economicEconomics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek from + , hence "rules of the house"...
policy and
military strategyMilitary strategy is a set of ideas implemented by military organizations to pursue desired strategic goals. Derived from the Greek strategos, strategy when it appeared in use during the 18th century, was seen in its narrow sense as the "art of the general", 'the art of arrangement' of troops...
which identifies its author by the names Kautilya and , who are traditionally identified with
The Arthashastra (IASTThe International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration is a transliteration scheme that allows a lossless romanization of Indic scripts as employed by the Sanskrit language.-Popularity:...
:
Arthaśāstra) is an ancient Indian
treatiseA treatise is a formal and systematic written discourse on some subject, generally longer and treating it in greater depth than an essay, and more concerned with investigating or exposing the principles of the subject.-Noteworthy treatises:...
on
statecraftPublic Administration houses the implementation of government policy and an academic discipline that studies this implementation and that prepares civil servants for this work. As a "field of inquiry with a diverse scope" its "fundamental goal.....
,
economicEconomics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek from + , hence "rules of the house"...
policy and
military strategyMilitary strategy is a set of ideas implemented by military organizations to pursue desired strategic goals. Derived from the Greek strategos, strategy when it appeared in use during the 18th century, was seen in its narrow sense as the "art of the general", 'the art of arrangement' of troops...
which identifies its author by the names Kautilya and {{IAST|Viṣhṇugupta}}, who are traditionally identified with
The Arthashastra (IASTThe International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration is a transliteration scheme that allows a lossless romanization of Indic scripts as employed by the Sanskrit language.-Popularity:...
:
Arthaśāstra) is an ancient Indian
treatiseA treatise is a formal and systematic written discourse on some subject, generally longer and treating it in greater depth than an essay, and more concerned with investigating or exposing the principles of the subject.-Noteworthy treatises:...
on
statecraftPublic Administration houses the implementation of government policy and an academic discipline that studies this implementation and that prepares civil servants for this work. As a "field of inquiry with a diverse scope" its "fundamental goal.....
,
economicEconomics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek from + , hence "rules of the house"...
policy and
military strategyMilitary strategy is a set of ideas implemented by military organizations to pursue desired strategic goals. Derived from the Greek strategos, strategy when it appeared in use during the 18th century, was seen in its narrow sense as the "art of the general", 'the art of arrangement' of troops...
which identifies its author by the names Kautilya and {{IAST|Viṣhṇugupta}}, who are traditionally identified with
{{IASTChānakya was a teacher to the first Maurya Emperor Chandragupta , and the first Indian emperor generally considered to be the architect of his rise to power. Traditionally, Chanakya is also identified by the names Kautilya and VishnuGupta, who authored the ancient Indian political treatise...
(c. 350–283 BC), who was a scholar at Takshashila and later the prime minister of the
Maurya EmpireThe Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power in ancient India, ruled by the Mauryan dynasty from 321 to 185 BC...
.
Date and authorship
The original identification of {{IAST|Kautilya}} or Vishnugupta with the Mauryan minister {{IAST|Chānakya}} would date the
Arthaśāstra to the 4th century BCE. However, certain affinities with smrtis and references that would be anachronistic for the 4th century BC suggest assigning the
Arthaśāstra to the 2nd through 4th centuries CE. Thomas R. Trautmann and I.W. Mabbett concur that the
Arthaśāstra is a composition from no earlier than the 2nd century AD, but based on earlier material. K.C. Ojha puts forward the view that the traditional identification of {{IAST|Vishnugupta}} with {{IAST|Kautilya}} was caused by a confusion of editor and originator and suggests that {{IAST|Vishnugupta}} is in fact a redactor of the original work of {{IAST|Kautilya}}. Thomas Burrow goes even further and says that {{IAST|Chānakya and Kautilya}} are actually two different people. The end of this treatise Arthaśāstra, however, says: "This Sástra has been made by him who from intolerance (of misrule) quickly rescued the scriptures and the science of weapons and the earth which had passed to the Nanda king." More recently, Mital concluded that the methods used by Trautmann were inadequate to prove his claims, and therefore "there exists no direct evidence against Kautilya being the sole author of The Arthashastra, nor evidence that it was not written during the 4th century BCE.". The difference widens specially among Indian and Foreign Scholars most of Indian Noted Scholars such as DR RC Majumdar, Dr DR Bhandarkar, Dr KP Jayaswal , Dr AS Altekar gives the date of Arthshastra ranging from 7th century BC to 2nd century BC. Dr Rk Mookerji and well known Scholar Prof FW Thomas and
Vincent Arthur SmithVincent Arthur Smith was born in 1843 in Dublin which was then part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. He was an Indologist, historian and art historian who worked in the Indian Civil Service and retired early to devote himself to his writing.His Oxford History of India, covering...
all agrees with the 4th century BC as the century of the book composition. HC Raychoudhuri has taken 249BC as the lower limit and 100AD as the upper limit of composition of Arthshastra in its present form and possibly the original translation may have occurred even at an earlier date. Sir RG Bhandarkar gives the date of composition of the book around 1st to 2nd century AD. This view is hold by european scholars along with RG Bhandarkar but many scholars such as DR RC Majumdar , Vincent Arthur Smith has rejected the date of Arthshastra as late as 2nd century AD and has accepted the composition of Arthshastra in 4th century BC. DD Kosambi noted Historian and indologist maintains that the book is a 4th BC century creation by Chanakya or Kautilya who was Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya. Prof Romilla thapar stands that the book is a geniune book about the Mauryan India but given its final touch in 3rd century AD. She supports the view of Trautmann that the various sections were composed in various centuries and some portions may have been composed by Kautilya as well but the present day form was given in 3rd century AD. Trautmann too support the views and notes that some portions of the Book may be composed by Kautilya who was the Prime Minister of Chandragupta but other parts were added later on, he gave example that Book-2 may have been composed in 150CE but the whole book in the present form was composed by 250CE. Considering all these views one can say with confidence that the book was composed between 4th/3rd century BC and 1st/2nd Century AD as noted by most of the scholars.
The text was influential until the 12th century, when it disappeared. It was discovered in 1904 by
R. ShamasastryRudrapatnam Shamasastry was a Sanskrit scholar and librarian at the Oriental Research Institute Mysore who is known for discovering and publishing the Arthashastra, an ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economic policy and military strategy....
, who published it in 1909 and the first English translation in 1915.
Translation of the title
Different scholars have translated the word "arthaśāstra" in different ways.
- R.P. Kangle – "science of politics," a treatise to help a king in "the acquisition and protection of the earth."
- A.L. Basham – a "treatise on polity"
- D.D. Kosambi – "science of material gain"
- G.P. Singh – "science of polity"
- Roger Boesche – "science of political economy
Political economy originally was the term for studying production, buying, and selling, and their relations with law, custom, and government, as well as with the distribution of national income and wealth, including through the budget process. Political economy originated in moral philosophy...
"
Roger Boesche describes the
Arthaśāstra as "a book of political realism, a book analysing how the political world does work and not very often stating how it ought to work, a book that frequently discloses to a king what calculating and sometimes brutal measures he must carry out to preserve the
stateA sovereign state, or simply, state, is a state with a defined territory on which it exercises internal and external sovereignty, a permanent population, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other sovereign states. It is also normally understood to be a state which is neither...
and the common good."
Centrally,
Arthaśāstra argues for an
autocracyAn autocracy is a form of government in which one person is the supreme power within the state. It is derived from the Greek : and , and may be translated as "one who rules by himself". It is distinct from oligarchy and democracy...
managing an efficient and solid
economyAn economy consists of the economic system of a country or other area; the labor, capital and land resources; and the manufacturing, trade, distribution, and consumption of goods and services of that area...
. It discusses the
ethicsEthics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy that addresses questions about morality—that is, concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime, etc.Major branches of ethics include:...
of
economicsEconomics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek from + , hence "rules of the house"...
and the duties and obligations of a king. The scope of
Arthaśāstra is, however, far wider than statecraft, and it offers an outline of the entire legal and
bureaucraticA bureaucracy is an organization of non-elected officials of a governmental or organization who implement the rules, laws, and functions of their institution, and are occasionally characterized by officialism and red tape.-Weberian bureaucracy:...
framework for administering a kingdom, with a wealth of descriptive cultural detail on topics such as mineralogy, mining and metals, agriculture, animal husbandry, medicine and the use of wildlife. The
Arthaśāstra also focuses on issues of
welfareA welfare state is a "concept of government in which the state plays a key role in the protection and promotion of the economic and social well-being of its citizens. It is based on the principles of equality of opportunity, equitable distribution of wealth, and public responsibility for those...
(for instance, redistribution of wealth during a
famineFamine has been a recurrent feature of life in the Indian sub-continental countries of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, and reached its numerically deadliest peak in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Historical and legendary evidence names some 90 famines in 2,500 years of history. There...
) and the collective
ethicsEthics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy that addresses questions about morality—that is, concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime, etc.Major branches of ethics include:...
that hold a
societyA society, or a human society, is a group of people related to each other through persistent relations, or a large social grouping sharing the same geographical or virtual territory, subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations...
together.
Comparison to Machiavelli
Because of its harsh political pragmatism, the
Arthashastra has often been compared to Machiavelli's
The PrinceThe Prince is a political treatise by the Italian diplomat, historian and political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli. From correspondence a version appears to have been distributed in 1513, using a Latin title, De Principatibus . But the printed version was not published until 1532, five years after...
.
{{quote|Is there any other book that talks so openly about when using violence is justified? When assassinating an enemy is useful? When killing domestic opponents is wise? How one uses secret agents? When one needs to sacrifice one's own secret agent? How the king can use women and children as spies and even assassins? When a nation should violate a treaty and invade its neighbor? Kautilya — and to my knowledge only Kautilya — addresses all those questions. In what cases must a king spy on his own people? How should a king test his ministers, even his own family members, to see if they are worthy of trust? When must a king kill a prince, his own son, who is heir to the throne? How does one protect a king from poison? What precautions must a king take against assassination by one's own wife? When is it appropriate to arrest a troublemaker on suspicion alone? When is torture justified? At some point, every reader wonders: Is there not one question that Kautilya found immoral, too terrible to ask in a book? No, not one. And this is what brings a frightful chill. But this is also why Kautilya was the first great, unrelenting political realist.|{{Harvtxt|Boesche|2002|p=1}}}}
Thus,
Max WeberKarl Emil Maximilian "Max" Weber was a German sociologist and political economist who profoundly influenced social theory, social research, and the discipline of sociology itself...
observed {{quote|Truly radical 'Machiavellianism', in the popular sense of that word, is classically expressed in Indian literature in the Arthasastra of Kautilya (written long before the birth of Christ, ostensibly in the time of Chandragupta): compared to it, Machiavelli’s
The Prince is harmless.|Max Weber,
Politics as a VocationPolitics as a Vocation is an essay by German economist and sociologist Max Weber. It originated in a lecture he gave to the Free Students Union of Munich University, in January 1919, during the German Revolution....
(1919)}}
However, the scope of the work is broader than usual accounts indicate, and in it can also be found compassion for the poor, for slaves, and for women. For instance he advocates what is now known as
land reform[Image:Jakarta farmers protest23.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Farmers protesting for Land Reform in Indonesia]Land reform involves the changing of laws, regulations or customs regarding land ownership. Land reform may consist of a government-initiated or government-backed property redistribution,...
, and elsewhere ensures the protection of the chastity of female slaves.
Books of Arthashastra
Arthashastra is divided into 15 books:
- 1 Concerning Discipline
- 2 The Duties of Government Superintendents
- 3 Concerning Law
- 4 The Removal of Thorns
- 5 The Conduct of Courtiers
- 6 The Source of Sovereign States
- 7 The End of the Six-Fold Policy
- 8 Concerning Vices and Calamities
- 9 The Work of an Invader
- 10 Relating to War
- 11 The Conduct of Corporations
- 12 Concerning a Powerful Enemy
- 13 Strategic Means to Capture a Fortress
- 14 Secret Means
- 15 The Plan of a Treatise
The Rajarshi
Arthashastra deals in detail with the qualities and disciplines required for a
RajarshiRajarshi or Rajarishi is, in Hinduism and Hindu mythology, a royal saint and rishi.-Order:A Rajarshi is a king who turned into a royal sage, or Rajarshi...
– a wise and virtuous king.
- "In the happiness of his subjects lies the king's happiness, in their welfare his welfare. He shall not consider as good only that which pleases him but treat as beneficial to him whatever pleases his subjects" – Kautilya.
According to Kautilya, a Rajarshi is one who:
- Has self-control, having conquered the inimical temptations of the senses;
- Cultivates the intellect by association with elders;
- Keeps his eyes open through spies;
- Is ever active in promoting the security and welfare of the people;
- Ensures the observance (by the people) of their dharma by authority & example;
- Improves his own discipline by (continuing his) learning in all branches of knowledge; and
- Endears himself to his people by enriching them and doing good to them.
Such a disciplined king should: –
- Keep away from another's wife;
- Not covet another's property;
- Practice ahimsa
Ahimsa is a term meaning to do no harm . The word is derived from the Sanskrit root hims – to strike; himsa is injury or harm, a-himsa is the opposite of this, i.e. non harming or nonviolence. It is an important tenet of the Indian religions...
(non-violence towards all living things);
- Avoid day dreaming, capriciousness, falsehood and extravagance; and
- Avoid association with harmful persons and indulging in (harmful) activities.
Kautilya says that artha (Sound Economies) is the most important;
dharmaDharma means Law or Natural Law and is a concept of central importance in Indian philosophy and religion. In the context of Hinduism, it refers to one's personal obligations, calling and duties, and a Hindu's dharma is affected by the person's age, caste, class, occupation, and gender...
and
kamaKāma is often translated from Sanskrit as sexual desire, sexual pleasure, sensual gratification, sexual fulfillment, or eros54654564+more broadly mean desire, wish, passion, longing, pleasure of the senses, the aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection, or love, without sexual connotations.-Kama in...
are both dependent on it. A Rajarshi shall always respect those councillors and purohitas who warn him of the dangers of transgressing the limits of good conduct, reminding him sharply (as with a goad) of the times prescribed for various duties and caution him even when he errs in private.
Duties of the king
If the king is energetic, his subjects will be equally energetic. If he is slack (and lazy in performing his duties), the subjects will also be lax and thereby eat into his wealth. Besides, a lazy king will easily fall into the hands of enemies. Hence the Rajarshi should himself always be energetic. He shall divide the day and the night, each into eight periods of one and half hours, and perform his duties as follows:
| First 1½ hrs. after sunrise |
Receive reports on defence, revenue, expenditure |
| Second 1½ hrs. after sunrise |
Public audiences, to hear petitions of city and country people |
| Third 1½ hrs. after sunrise and Last 1½ hrs. before noon |
Receive revenues and tributes; appoint ministers and other high officials & allot tasks to them |
| First 1½ hrs. after noon |
Write letters & dispatches, confer with councillors, receive secret information from spies |
| Second 1½ hrs. after noon |
Personal: recreation, time for contemplation |
| Third 1½ hrs. after noon and Last 1½ hrs. before sunset |
Inspect and review forces; Consult with Chief of Defence |
The day shall end with evening prayers.
| First 1½ hrs. after sunset |
Interview with secret agents |
| Second 1½ hrs. after sunset |
Personal: bath, meals, study |
| Third & Fourth 1½ hrs. after sunset and First 1½ hrs. after midnight |
Retire to the bed chamber to the sound of music, sleep |
| Second 1½ hrs. after midnight |
After waking to the sound of music, meditate on political matters and on work to be done |
| Third 1½ hrs. after midnight |
Consult with councilors, send out spies |
| Last 1½ hrs. before sunrise |
Religious, household & personal duties, meetings with his teacher, adviser on rituals, purohitas, personal physician, chief cooks and astrologer |
Or some other time table which suits the king.
Hence the king shall be ever active in the management of the economy. The root of wealth is (economic) activity and lack of it (brings) material distress. In the absence of (fruitful economic) activity, both current prosperity and future growth will be destroyed. A king can achieve the desired objectives and abundance of riches by undertaking (productive) economic activity.
An ideal king is one who has the highest qualities of leadership, intellect, energy & personal attributes.
The qualities of
leadershipLeadership has been described as the “process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task". Other in-depth definitions of leadership have also emerged.-Theories:...
(which attracts followers) are: birth in a noble family, good fortune, intellect and prowess, association with elders, being righteous, truthful, resolute, enthusiastic and disciplined, not breaking his promises, showing gratitude (to those who help him), having lofty aims, not being dilatory, being stronger than neighbouring kings and having ministers of high quality.
The qualities of
intellectIntellect is a term used in studies of the human mind, and refers to the ability of the mind to come to correct conclusions about what is true or real, and about how to solve problems...
are: desire to learn, listening (to others), grasping, retaining, understanding thoroughly and reflecting on knowledge, rejecting false views and adhering to the true ones.
An energetic king is one who is valorous, determined, quick, and dexterous.
As regards personal attributes, an ideal king should be eloquent, bold and endowed with sharp intellect, a strong memory and a keen mind. He should be amenable to guidance. He should be well trained in all the arts and be able to lead the army. He should be just in rewarding and punishing. He should have the foresight to avail himself of the opportunities (by choosing) the right time, place and type of action. He should know how to govern in normal times and in times of crisis. He should know when to fight and when to make peace, when to lie in wait, when to observe treaties and when to strike at an enemy's weakness. He should preserve his dignity at all times and not laugh in an undignified manner. He should be sweet in speech, look straight at people and avoid frowning. He should eschew passion, anger, greed, obstinacy, fickleness and backbiting. He should conduct himself in accordance with advice of elders.
Internal strife
Kautilya says – Quarrels among people can be resolved by winning over the leaders or by removing the cause of the quarrel – people fighting among themselves help the king by their mutual rivalry. Conflicts (for power) within the royal family, on the other hand, bring about harassment and destruction to the people and double the exertion that is required to end such conflicts.
Hence internal strife in the royal family for power is more damaging than quarrels among their subjects. The king must be well versed in
discretionDiscretion is a noun in the English language with several meanings revolving around the judgment of the person exercising the characteristic.-Meanings:*"The Art of suiting action to particular circumstances"...
and shrewd in judgement.
Comments on vices
Vices are corruptions due to ignorance and indiscipline; an unlearned man does not perceive the injurious consequences of his vices. He summarizes: subject to the qualification that
gamblingGambling is the wagering of money or something of material value on an event with an uncertain outcome with the primary intent of winning additional money and/or material goods...
is most dangerous in cases where power is shared, the vice with the most serious consequence is
addiction to drinkAlcoholism is a broad term for problems with alcohol, and is generally used to mean compulsive and uncontrolled consumption of alcoholic beverages, usually to the detriment of the drinker's health, personal relationships, and social standing...
, followed by, lusting after women, gambling, and lastly hunting.
Training of a future king
Importance of self-discipline
Discipline is of two kinds – inborn and acquired. (There must be an innate capacity for self discipline for the reasons given below). Instruction & training can promote discipline only in a person capable of benefiting from them, people incapable of (natural) self-discipline do not benefit. Learning imparts discipline only to those who have the following mental facilities – obedience to a teacher, desire and ability to learn, capacity to retain what is learnt, understanding what is learnt, reflecting on it and (finally) ability to make inferences by deliberating on the knowledge acquired. Those who are devoid of such mental faculties are not benefited (by any amount of training) One who will be a king should acquire discipline and follow it strictly in life by learning the sciences from authoritative teachers.
The training of a prince
With improving his self-discipline, he should always associate with learned elders, for in them alone has discipline its firm roots. For a trained intellect ensues yoga (successful application), from yoga comes self-possession. This is what is meant by efficiency in acquiring knowledge. Only a king, who is wise, disciplined, devoted to a just governing of the subjects & conscious of the welfare of all beings, will enjoy the earth unopposed.
Seven ways to greet a neighbour
Kautilya recommended seven strategies in dealing with neighboring powers to
Chandragupta MauryaChandragupta Maurya , was the founder of the Maurya Empire. Chandragupta succeeded in conquering most of the Indian subcontinent. Chandragupta is considered the first unifier of India and its first genuine emperor...
.
The strategies are:
- Sanman – Appeasement, non-aggression pact
- Danda – Strength, punishment
- Dana – Gift, bribery
- Bheda – Divide, split, separating opposition
- Maya – Illusion, deceit
- Upeksha – Ignoring the enemy
- Indrajala – Faking military strength
Maintenance of law and order
A conducive atmosphere is necessary for the state's economy to thrive. This requires that a state's law and order be maintained. Arthashastra specifies fines and punishments to support strict enforcement of laws. The science of law enforcement is also called
Dandaniti.
Wildlife and forests
The Mauryas firstly looked at forests as a resource. For them, the most important forest product was the elephant. Military might in those times depended not only upon horses and men but also battle-elephants; these played a role in the defeat of Seleucus Nicator,
AlexanderAlexander is a common male first name, and less common surname. The most famous is Alexander the Great, the King of Macedon who created one of the largest empires in ancient history.- Origin :...
's governor of the
PunjabThe Punjab , also spelled Panjab |water]]s"), is a geographical region straddling the border between Pakistan and India which includes Punjab province in Pakistan and the states of the Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Chandigarh and some northern parts of the National Capital Territory of Delhi...
. The Mauryas sought to preserve supplies of elephants since it was more cost and time-effective to catch, tame and train wild elephants than raise them. Kautilya's
Arthashastra unambiguously specifies the responsibilities of officials such as the
Protector of the Elephant Forests:
{{quote|On the border of the forest, he should establish a forest for elephants guarded by foresters. The Superintendent should with the help of guards...protect the elephants whether along on the mountain, along a river, along lakes or in marshy tracts...They should kill anyone slaying an elephant.|Arthashastra}}
The
Arthashastra also reveals that the Mauryas designated specific forests to protect supplies of timber, as well as lions and tigers, for skins. Elsewhere the
Protector of Animals also worked to eliminate thieves, tigers and other predators to render the woods safe for grazing cattle.
Economic ideas
The exhaustive account of the economic ideas embedded in the Arthasastra has been given by
Ratan Lal BasuRatan Lal Basu is an economist and English fiction author from Kolkata, India.-Childhood and parents:...
and by many renowned Arthasastra-experts in an Edited Volume by Sen & Basu This book contains papers presented by authors from all over the world in the International Conference held in 1902 at the Oriental Research Institute, Mysore,
IndiaIndia , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
to celebrate the Centenary of discovery of the manuscript of the Arthasastra by
R. ShamasastryRudrapatnam Shamasastry was a Sanskrit scholar and librarian at the Oriental Research Institute Mysore who is known for discovering and publishing the Arthashastra, an ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economic policy and military strategy....
.
External links
{{Wikisource|1=Arthashastra|2=Arthashastra}}