Armatoloi (pronounced
ar-ma-to-LEE), (
GreekGreek , an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, is the language of the Greeks. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. In its ancient form, it is the language of classical...
plural Αρματολοί;
singular Armatolos - Αρματολός; also called
Armatoles in English) were Greek Christian irregular soldiers, or
militiaThe term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary citizens to provide defense, emergency law enforcement, or paramilitary service, in times of emergency without being paid a regular salary or committed to a fixed term of service. It is a polyseme with...
, commissioned by the
OttomansThe Ottoman Empire or Ottoman State , also known by its contemporaries as the Turkish Empire or Turkey , was an empire that lasted from 1299 to November 1, 1922 The Ottoman Empire or Ottoman State (Ottoman Turkish: دَوْلَتِ عَلِیَّهِ عُثْمَانِیَّه Dawlet-il ʿAliyyat-il ʿOs̠māniyye, Modern Turkish:...
to enforce the Sultan's authority within an administrative district called an Armatoliki (
GreekGreek , an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, is the language of the Greeks. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. In its ancient form, it is the language of classical...
singular Αρματολίκι;
plural Armatolikia - Αρματολίκια). Armatolikia were created in areas of Greece that had high levels of brigandage, or in regions that were difficult for Ottoman authorities to govern due to the inaccessible terrain, such as the
AgrafaAgrafa is a mountainous region in Evrytania and Karditsa prefectures in mainland Greece, consisting mainly of small villages. It is the southernmost part of the Pindus range...
mountains of
ThessalyThessaly is one of the 13 peripheries of Greece, and is further sub-divided into 4 prefectures. The capital of the periphery and traditional geographical region is Larissa. Together with the regions of Macedonia and Thrace, it is often referred to unofficially as Northern Greece...
, where the first armatoliki was established in the mid-1400s.
An armatoliki was usually commanded by a
kapetanios (captain), often a former
klephtKlephts , were Greek bandits and warlike mountain folk who lived in the countryside when Greece was a part of the Ottoman Empire...
captain who had been hired by the governing
OttomanThe Ottoman Empire or Ottoman State , also known by its contemporaries as the Turkish Empire or Turkey , was an empire that lasted from 1299 to November 1, 1922 The Ottoman Empire or Ottoman State (Ottoman Turkish: دَوْلَتِ عَلِیَّهِ عُثْمَانِیَّه Dawlet-il ʿAliyyat-il ʿOs̠māniyye, Modern Turkish:...
PashaPasha or pacha, formerly bashaw, was a high rank in the Ottoman Empire political system, typically granted to governors, generals and dignitaries...
to combat, or at least contain,
brigandKlephts , were Greek bandits and warlike mountain folk who lived in the countryside when Greece was a part of the Ottoman Empire...
groups in the region. In most cases, the captain would have gained a level of notoriety as a klepht in order to force the Ottomans to give him the amnesty and privilege that came with an armatoliki. Therefore, it was not surprising that armatolos units were organised in very much the same way as the
klephtKlephts , were Greek bandits and warlike mountain folk who lived in the countryside when Greece was a part of the Ottoman Empire...
s, with a captain assisted by a
lieutenantLieutenant is a military, naval, paramilitary, fire service, emergency medical services or police officer rank....
called a
protopalikaro, who was usually a kinsman, and the remaining force made up of
armatoloi.
Over time, the roles of the armatoloi and klephtes became blurred, with both reversing their roles and allegiances as the situation demanded, all the while maintaining the delicate status-quo with the Ottoman authorities. Many captains ran their armatoliki like a personal fiefdom, exacting a heavy toll of extortion and violence on the local peasantry.
During the
Greek War of IndependenceThe Greek War of Independence was a successful war of independence waged by the Greek revolutionaries between 1821 and 1829, with later assistance from several European powers, against the Ottoman Empire, who were assisted by their vassals, the Egyptian Khedivate and partly the Vilayet of...
, the armatoloi, along with the klephtes, formed the nucleus of the Greek fighting forces, and played a prominent part throughout its duration.
Yannis Makriyannis referred to the "klephtes and armatoloi" as the "yeast of liberty"..
Etymology
The word first appeared during the 15th century during Venetian times. It is derived from a medieval loan from Italian
arma ('weapon'), probably via αρματολόγος ('someone who deals with arms', 'an armed person') > αρματολόος > αρματολός. According to an older hypothesis, the development of the word may also have been influenced by a conflation with the similar-sounding αμαρτωλός ('sinner'), which may have been associated with the topic of armed bands through phrases such as "αμαρτωλοί/αρματολοί και κλέφτες" (meaning 'sinners and thieves', but also 'armatoloi and klephts'). Owing to the parallelism with "αμαρτωλός", the word was also sometimes spelled as "αρματωλός", with the letter omega.
Origins
According to Vacalopoulos, the
armatoles first appeared as an institution in Agrafa (Thessaly) during the reign of
Murad II Murad II Kodja was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1421 to 1451 ....
(1421-1451). From there, they spread to other parts of Greece except the Peloponnese.
Ottoman period
The armatoloi were organized based on a feudal system under which military/police units maintained their duties in exchange for titles of land. When the Ottomans conquered the plains of Greece (along with a myriad of islands), they did not disband or remove the armatoloi. In fact, the Ottomans established treaties with the armatoloi in order for them to maintain their military/police functions. The Ottomans would have units of armatoloi or kapetanioi (καπετάνιοι; captains) function as peace-keepers in territories near difficult terrain (i.e. mountain passes) or in areas where resistance to foreign rule entailed acts of theft by the klephts.
The armatoloi were mostly concentrated in Macedonia,
ThessalyThessaly is one of the 13 peripheries of Greece, and is further sub-divided into 4 prefectures. The capital of the periphery and traditional geographical region is Larissa. Together with the regions of Macedonia and Thrace, it is often referred to unofficially as Northern Greece...
,
EpirusEpirus is a geographical and historical region of Greece in southeastern Europe, currently divided between the periphery of Epirus in Greece and the prefectures of Gjirokastër, Vlorë, Berat, and Korçë in southern Albania.-Name & Etymology:...
,
AcarnaniaAcarnania is a region of west-central Greece that lies along the Ionian Sea, west of Aetolia, with the Achelous River for a boundary, and north of the gulf of Calydon, which is the entrance to the Gulf of Corinth. Today it forms the western part of the prefecture of Aetolia-Acarnania...
, and
AetoliaAetolia is a mountainous region of Greece on the north coast of the Gulf of Corinth, forming the eastern part of the modern prefecture of Aetolia-Acarnania.-Geography:...
(specifically
AgrafaAgrafa is a mountainous region in Evrytania and Karditsa prefectures in mainland Greece, consisting mainly of small villages. It is the southernmost part of the Pindus range...
). In the Peloponnesus, armatolismos did not develop in the same manner as it did in Roumeli and Epirus. In the Peloponnesus, the
kapoi (κάποι) and the
meintanides (μεϊντάνηδες) were similar to the armatoloi. If in certain regions, the institution of armatolismos was not implemented, the territories were divided into
armatolikia (αρματολίκια) or
protakta (προτάκτα). These territories extended from Axios river (
Αξιός) to
Ambracian GulfThe Ambracian Gulf, also known as the Gulf of Arta or the Gulf of Actium, and in some official documents as the Amvrakikos Gulf , is a gulf of the Ionian Sea in northwestern Greece. About 40 km long and 15 km wide, it is one of the largest enclosed gulfs in Greece...
(
Αμβρακικός) and up to the Corinthian gulf (
Κορινθιακός). The kapetanioi would often have authority over these territories via inheritance/succession. A single kapetanio was at first forced to submit his authority to the pasha who controlled the periphery. Later, all kapetanioi were forced to submit to Dervedji pasha (
Δερβετζή πασά).
During the 18th century, there were around seventeen armatolikia. Ten of them were located in Thessaly and the eastern regions of Sterea Ellada, four of them in Epirus, Acarnania, and Aetolia, and three in Macedonia. Every kapetanio had his
palikaria (παλικάρια). Among these palikaria, the best recognized leader, secretary, and sometimes successor of the kapetanio was deemed
protopalikaro (πρωτοπαλίκαρο). The palikaria would train with their weapons on a daily basis.
The main weapon the palikaria utilized was the
kariofili (καριοφίλι). Marksmanship was the proverbial hallmark that defined the palikaria. They were also capable in the art of
ambushAn ambush is a long-established military tactic, in which the aggressors use concealment to attack a passing enemy. Ambushers strike from concealed positions, such as among dense underbrush or behind hilltops. Ambushes have been used consistently throughout history, from ancient to modern warfare...
ing and mobility. The palikaria were resilient toward thirst, hunger and even the painful difficulties in their encounters with the klephts.
The term
klephtopolemos (
κλεφτοπόλεμος) was used to name the strategies/tactics that both the klephts and armatoloi utilized. These tactics are used today for unconventional military campaigns by small guerilla groups. The armatoloi would conduct campaigns during nighttime. This strategy was known as "going out to pagana" (έβγαιναν στην παγάνα). The armatoloi would usually do this when the klephts were coming out of their dens. The armatoloi would defend themselves in improvised forts (called
meterizia;
μετερίζια) against the guerrilla tactics utilized by the klephts (specifically known as
klephtouria; κλεφτουριά). A general offensive campaign by the armatoloi was known as
giourousi (γιουρούσι). During one of these campaigns, the armatoloi would make effective use of swords and warcries.
Before 1821
For the Ottomans, it became progressively more difficult for them to distinguish the armatoloi from the klephts. Both groups began to establish relations with one another under a common ethnic rubric. This collaboration was also based on mutual sentiments against foreign conquerors. Since both groups were armed and possessed military experience, they helped Greeks become better warriors than the Turks before the advent of the Greek Revolution of 1821.
The first recorded appearance of collaborations between armatoloi and klephts goes back to 1585 during the wars fought between the Venetians and the Ottomans. During this time, Theodoros Boua-Grivas incited an insurrection in Acarnania and Epirus with armatoloi Poulios Drakos and Malamos from Epirus. The
Sublime PortThe Sublime Porte is a synecdoche for the Ottoman Empire, by reference to the High Gate of the Divan .- Terminology :...
continued to have trust in armed groups such as the armatoloi up until 1684. During that year, the bodyguards of the Port, the armatoloi, became carriers of ethnic-oriented ideas. Prominent armatoloi from the 17th century were Soumilas (Σουμίλας), Meintanis (Μεϊντάνης), Livinis (Λιβίνης), Kourmas (Κούρμας), the Balaorites (Βαλαωρίτες), etc. Though these famous individuals engaged in failed rebellions, their sacrifices became an inspiration for future armatoloi to follow.
Revolution of 1821
Since the 1770s the
Russian EmpireThe Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia, and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
tried to inspire a rebellion in Greece (see
Orlov RevoltThe Orlov Revolt was a precursor to the Greek War of Independence , which saw a Greek uprising in the Peloponnese at the instigation of Count Orlov, commander of the Russian Naval Forces of the Russo-Turkish War...
). During these attempts many armatoloi took up arms. Among them were
Odysseas AndroutsosOdysseas Androutsos was a hero of the Greek War of Independence. He was born in Ithaca in 1788, however his family was from the village of Livanates in Phthiotis prefecture...
,
Georgios KaraiskakisGeorgios Karaiskakis was a famous Greek klepht, armatolos, military commander, and a hero of the Greek War of Independence.- Early life :...
,
Athanasios DiakosAthanasios Diakos , a Greek military commander during the Greek War of Independence and a national hero, was born Athanasios Nikolaos Massavetas in the village of Ano Mousounitsa, Phocis.-Early life:...
, and
Markos BotsarisMarkos Botsaris was a leader of the Souliotes and a hero of the War of Greek Independence.-Early life:Botsaris was born into one of the leading clans of the Souliotes, in Epirus. He was the second son of captain Kitsos Botsaris, who was murdered in Arta in 1809 by order of Ali Pasha...
. There were armatoloi that were first enlisted by
Ali PashaAli Pasha of Tepelena or of Yannina, the "Lion of Yannina", was an Albanian ruler of the western part of Rumelia, the Ottoman Empire's European territory which was also called Pashalik of Janina...
to fight against the Ottomans. In 1820, when Ali declared his territory’s withdrawal from Ottoman influence, he depended heavily on the Greek armatoloi to help him. Though Ali’s insurrection failed, this bold experiment did not weaken the ability of the armatoloi to fight for independence and contribute to the Greek Revolution.
Sources
- Diamantopoulos, N., Kyriazopoulou, A., “Elliniki Istoria Ton Neoteron Hronon”, OEDB, (1980).
- Brewer, David, “The Greek War of Independence”, The Overlook Press (2001). ISBN 1-58567-172-X.
- Paroulakis, Peter H., "The Greeks: Their Struggle For Independence”, Hellenic International Press (1984). ISBN 0-9590894-1-1.
- Stratiki, Poti, “To Athanato 1821”, Stratikis Bros, (1990). ISBN 960-7261-50-X.
- Vacalopoulos, Apostolis. The Greek Nation, 1453-1669. Rutgers University Press, 1976.
External links