Archaeological sub-disciplines
Encyclopedia
As with most academic
disciplines, there are a number of archaeological sub-disciplines typically characterised by a focus on a specific method or type of material, geographical or chronological focus, or other thematic concern. In addition, certain civilizations have attracted so much attention that their study has been specifically named. These sub-disciplines include Assyriology
(Mesopotamia
), Phoeniciology
(Phoenicia
), Classical archaeology
(Greece
and Rome
), and Egyptology
(Egypt
).
The other main division of archaeology is into historical archaeology
, which examines civilizations that left behind written records and prehistoric archaeology
, which concerns itself with societies that did not have writing systems. However, the term is generally valid only in Europe
and Asia
where literate societies emerged without colonial influence. In areas where literacy arrived relatively late, it is more convenient to use other terms to divide up the archaeological record. In areas of semi-literacy the term protohistoric archaeology can be adopted to cover the study of societies with very limited written records. One example of a protohistoric site is Fort Ross on the northern California
coast, which included settlements of literate Russia
ns and non-literate American Indians
and Alaska natives
.
Ethnoarchaeology
is the study of modern societies resembling extinct ones of archaeological interest, for archaeological purposes. It is often difficult to infer solid conclusions about the structure and values of ancient societies from their material remains, not only because objects are mute and say little about those who crafted and used them, but also because not all objects survive to be uncovered by scholars of a later age. Ethnoarchaeology seeks to determine, for instance, what kinds of objects used in a living settlement are deposited in midden
s or other places where they may be preserved, and how likely an object is to be discarded near to the place where it was used.
Taphonomy
is the study of how objects decay and degrade over time. This information is critical to the interpretation of artefact
s and other objects, so that the work of ancient people can be differentiated from the later work of living creatures and elemental forces.
A selective list of sub-disciplines distinguished by time period or region of study is given below.
The following is a list of other sub-disciplines. Some of these are not areas of study in their own right, and are only methods to be used in larger projects.
There are also a wide variety of techniques used for post-excavation analysis.
Academia
Academia is the community of students and scholars engaged in higher education and research.-Etymology:The word comes from the akademeia in ancient Greece. Outside the city walls of Athens, the gymnasium was made famous by Plato as a center of learning...
disciplines, there are a number of archaeological sub-disciplines typically characterised by a focus on a specific method or type of material, geographical or chronological focus, or other thematic concern. In addition, certain civilizations have attracted so much attention that their study has been specifically named. These sub-disciplines include Assyriology
Assyriology
Assyriology is the archaeological, historical, and linguistic study of ancient Mesopotamia and the related cultures that used cuneiform writing. The field covers the Akkadian sister-cultures of Assyria and Babylonia, together with their cultural predecessor; Sumer...
(Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia is a toponym for the area of the Tigris–Euphrates river system, largely corresponding to modern-day Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and southwestern Iran.Widely considered to be the cradle of civilization, Bronze Age Mesopotamia included Sumer and the...
), Phoeniciology
Phoeniciology
Phoeniciology is a sub-discipline of Archaeology exclusively studying of ancient Phoenicia, occupying modern-day Lebanon and Tunisia, and, to a lesser extent: Cyprus, Malta, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Israel and Spain....
(Phoenicia
Phoenicia
Phoenicia , was an ancient civilization in Canaan which covered most of the western, coastal part of the Fertile Crescent. Several major Phoenician cities were built on the coastline of the Mediterranean. It was an enterprising maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean from 1550...
), Classical archaeology
Classical archaeology
Classical archaeology is the archaeological investigation of the great Mediterranean civilizations of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Nineteenth century archaeologists such as Heinrich Schliemann were drawn to study the societies they had read about in Latin and Greek texts...
(Greece
Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece is a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Included in Ancient Greece is the...
and Rome
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
), and Egyptology
Egyptology
Egyptology is the study of ancient Egyptian history, language, literature, religion, and art from the 5th millennium BC until the end of its native religious practices in the AD 4th century. A practitioner of the discipline is an “Egyptologist”...
(Egypt
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt was an ancient civilization of Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. Egyptian civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh...
).
The other main division of archaeology is into historical archaeology
Historical archaeology
Historical archaeology is a form of archaeology dealing with topics that are already attested in written records. These records can both complement and conflict with the archaeological evidence found at a particular site. Studies tend to focus on literate, historical-period societies as opposed...
, which examines civilizations that left behind written records and prehistoric archaeology
Prehistoric archaeology
History is the study of the past using written records. Archaeology can also be used to study the past alongside history. Prehistoric archaeology is the study of the past before historical records began....
, which concerns itself with societies that did not have writing systems. However, the term is generally valid only in Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
and Asia
Asia
Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres. It covers 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area and with approximately 3.879 billion people, it hosts 60% of the world's current human population...
where literate societies emerged without colonial influence. In areas where literacy arrived relatively late, it is more convenient to use other terms to divide up the archaeological record. In areas of semi-literacy the term protohistoric archaeology can be adopted to cover the study of societies with very limited written records. One example of a protohistoric site is Fort Ross on the northern California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
coast, which included settlements of literate Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
ns and non-literate American Indians
Native Americans in the United States
Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the present-day continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are composed of numerous, distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
and Alaska natives
Alaska Natives
Alaska Natives are the indigenous peoples of Alaska. They include: Aleut, Inuit, Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, Eyak, and a number of Northern Athabaskan cultures.-History:In 1912 the Alaska Native Brotherhood was founded...
.
Ethnoarchaeology
Ethnoarchaeology
Ethnoarchaeology is the ethnographic study of peoples for archaeological reasons, usually through the study of the material remains of a society . Ethnoarchaeology aids archaeologists in reconstructing ancient lifeways by studying the material and non-material traditions of modern societies...
is the study of modern societies resembling extinct ones of archaeological interest, for archaeological purposes. It is often difficult to infer solid conclusions about the structure and values of ancient societies from their material remains, not only because objects are mute and say little about those who crafted and used them, but also because not all objects survive to be uncovered by scholars of a later age. Ethnoarchaeology seeks to determine, for instance, what kinds of objects used in a living settlement are deposited in midden
Midden
A midden, is an old dump for domestic waste which may consist of animal bone, human excrement, botanical material, vermin, shells, sherds, lithics , and other artifacts and ecofacts associated with past human occupation...
s or other places where they may be preserved, and how likely an object is to be discarded near to the place where it was used.
Taphonomy
Taphonomy
Taphonomy is the study of decaying organisms over time and how they become fossilized . The term taphonomy was introduced to paleontology in 1940 by Russian scientist Ivan Efremov to describe the study of the transition of remains, parts, or products of organisms, from the biosphere, to the...
is the study of how objects decay and degrade over time. This information is critical to the interpretation of artefact
Artifact (archaeology)
An artifact or artefact is "something made or given shape by man, such as a tool or a work of art, esp an object of archaeological interest"...
s and other objects, so that the work of ancient people can be differentiated from the later work of living creatures and elemental forces.
A selective list of sub-disciplines distinguished by time period or region of study is given below.
- African archaeologyAfrican archaeologyThe continent of Africa has the longest record of human activity of any part of the world and along with its geographical extent, it contains an enormous archaeological resource...
, Archaeology of the AmericasArchaeology of the AmericasThe archaeology of the Americas is the study of the archaeology of North America , Central America, South America and the Caribbean...
, Australian archaeologyAustralian archaeologyAustralian Archaeology is a large sub-field in the discipline of Archaeology. Archaeology in Australia takes three main forms, Aboriginal Archaeology , Historical Archaeology and Maritime Archaeology...
, European archaeology: focuses on archaeologic study concerning the location of the findings. - Industrial archaeologyIndustrial archaeologyIndustrial archaeology, like other branches of archaeology, is the study of material culture from the past, but with a focus on industry. Strictly speaking, industrial archaeology includes sites from the earliest times to the most recent...
focuses on the preservation of material relics of the Industrial RevolutionIndustrial RevolutionThe Industrial Revolution was a period from the 18th to the 19th century where major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology had a profound effect on the social, economic and cultural conditions of the times...
or the archaeology of work. - Near Eastern archaeologyNear Eastern archaeologyNear Eastern Archaeology is a regional branch of the wider, global discipline of Archaeology...
(sometimes known as Middle Eastern archaeology). See also Biblical archaeologyBiblical archaeologyFor the movement associated with William F. Albright and also known as biblical archaeology, see Biblical archaeology school. For the interpretation of biblical archaeology in relation to biblical historicity, see The Bible and history....
, which applies the results of Near Eastern archaeology to the study of the BibleBibleThe Bible refers to any one of the collections of the primary religious texts of Judaism and Christianity. There is no common version of the Bible, as the individual books , their contents and their order vary among denominations...
. - Medieval archaeologyMedieval archaeologyMedieval archaeology is the study of humankind through its material culture, specialising in the period of the European Middle Ages. At its broadest, the period stretches from the 5th to the 16th century and refers to post-Roman but pre modern remains. The period covers the upheaval caused by the...
is the study of post-Roman European archaeology until the sixteenth century. - Post-medieval archaeologyPost-medieval archaeologyPost-medieval archaeology is a term used in Europe to describe the study of the material past over the last 500 years. Increasingly the field is referred to as Historical archaeology, a term in international usage. It is closely related to Industrial archaeology, although Post-medieval archaeology...
is the study of material culture in Europe from the 16th century onwards. - Modern archaeologyContemporary archaeologyContemporary Archaeology is a field of archaeological research that focuses on the most recent past, and also increasingly explores the application of archaeological thinking to the contemporary world. It has also been referred to as the archaeology of the 'contemporary past'...
is the study of modern society using archaeological methods, e.g. the Tucson Garbage ProjectTucson Garbage ProjectThe Tucson Garbage Project is an archaeological and sociological study instituted in 1973 by Dr. William Rathje in the city of Tucson in the Southwestern American state of Arizona. This project is sometimes referred to outside of academic circles as the "garbology project".-History:Dr...
. - Historical archaeologyHistorical archaeologyHistorical archaeology is a form of archaeology dealing with topics that are already attested in written records. These records can both complement and conflict with the archaeological evidence found at a particular site. Studies tend to focus on literate, historical-period societies as opposed...
is the study of the past using both material evidence (i.e. artifacts and their contexts) and documentary evidence (including maps, photographs and film).
The following is a list of other sub-disciplines. Some of these are not areas of study in their own right, and are only methods to be used in larger projects.
- Aerial archaeologyAerial archaeologyAerial archaeology is the study of archaeological remains by examining them from altitude.The advantages of gaining a good aerial view of the ground had been long appreciated by archaeologists as a high viewpoint permits a better appreciation of fine details and their relationships within the wider...
studying sites from air photos, especially by identifying cropmarks. - ArchaeoastronomyArchaeoastronomyArchaeoastronomy is the study of how people in the past "have understood the phenomena in the sky how they used phenomena in the sky and what role the sky played in their cultures." Clive Ruggles argues it is misleading to consider archaeoastronomy to be the study of ancient astronomy, as modern...
is the study of the relationship between the configuration of ancient monuments and astronomy. - Archaeological scienceArchaeological scienceArchaeological science, also known as archaeometry, consists of the application of scientific techniques to the analysis of archaeological materials. Archaeometry is now considered its own scientific field. The UK's Natural and Environmental Research Council provides funding for archaeometry...
or Archaeometry is the application of scientific techniques or methodologies to archaeology such as radiocarbon datingRadiocarbon datingRadiocarbon dating is a radiometric dating method that uses the naturally occurring radioisotope carbon-14 to estimate the age of carbon-bearing materials up to about 58,000 to 62,000 years. Raw, i.e. uncalibrated, radiocarbon ages are usually reported in radiocarbon years "Before Present" ,...
, statisticsStatisticsStatistics is the study of the collection, organization, analysis, and interpretation of data. It deals with all aspects of this, including the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys and experiments....
and remote sensingRemote sensingRemote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon, without making physical contact with the object. In modern usage, the term generally refers to the use of aerial sensor technologies to detect and classify objects on Earth by means of propagated signals Remote sensing...
. - Archaeozoology is the study of animal remains in human settlements.
- Archaeobotany or paleoethnobotanyPaleoethnobotanyPaleoethnobotany, also known as archaeobotany in European academic circles, is the archaeological sub-field that studies plant remains from archaeological sites...
is the study of human-plant interaction in the archaeological record. - Battlefield archaeologyBattlefield archaeologyBattlefield archaeology is a sub-discipline of archaeology that began in North America with Dr. Douglas D. Scott's, National Park Service, metal detecting of in 1983...
is the study of conflict sites from an archeological perspective. - CalceologyCalceologyCalceology is the study of footwear, especially historical footwear whether as archaeology, shoe fashion history, or otherwise. It is not yet formally recognized as a field of research. Calceology comprises the examination, registration, research and conservation of leather shoe fragments...
is the study of archaeological footwearFootwearFootwear consists of garments worn on the feet, for fashion, protection against the environment, and adornment. Being barefoot is commonly associated with poverty, but some cultures chose not to wear footwear at least in some situations....
. - Computational archaeologyComputational archaeologyComputational archaeology describes computer-based analytical methods for the study of long-term human behaviour and behavioural evolution. As with other sub-disciplines that have prefixed 'computational' to their name Computational archaeology describes computer-based analytical methods for the...
is the application of computers, particularly GISGeographic Information SystemA geographic information system, geographical information science, or geospatial information studies is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all types of geographically referenced data...
, to archaeology. - Experimental archaeologyExperimental archaeologyExperimental archaeology employs a number of different methods, techniques, analyses, and approaches in order to generate and test hypotheses, based upon archaeological source material, like ancient structures or artifacts. It should not be confused with primitive technology which is not concerned...
involves attempting to re-enact past processes to test theories about ancient manufacturing, engineering and the effects of time on sites and objects (for example: flintknapping). - Environmental archaeologyEnvironmental archaeologyEnvironmental archaeology is the study of the long-term relationship between humans and their environments. Various sub-disciplines are involved to document and interpret this relationship, including paleoethnobotany, zooarchaeology, geomorphology, palynology, geophysics, landscape archaeology,...
studies the long-term relationship between humans and their environments. - Forensic archaeologyForensic archaeologyForensic archaeology, a forensic science, is the application of archaeological principles, techniques and methodologies in a legal context .-Overview:...
is the application of archaeological techniques to criminal investigations. It has become particularly prominent in the investigation of mass-killings associated with war crimeWar crimeWar crimes are serious violations of the laws applicable in armed conflict giving rise to individual criminal responsibility...
s. - Landscape archaeologyLandscape archaeologyLandscape archaeology is the study of the ways in which people in the past constructed and used the environment around them. Landscape archaeology is inherently multidisciplinary in its approach to the study of culture, and is used by both pre-historical, classic, and historic archaeologists...
involves identifying and studying sites as components in a wider geographical area. - Maritime archaeologyMaritime archaeologyMaritime archaeology is a discipline within archaeology as a whole that specifically studies human interaction with the sea, lakes and rivers through the study of associated physical remains, be they vessels, shore side facilities, port-related structures, cargoes, human remains and submerged...
is the study of submerged archaeological sites, including shipwreckShipwreckA shipwreck is what remains of a ship that has wrecked, either sunk or beached. Whatever the cause, a sunken ship or a wrecked ship is a physical example of the event: this explains why the two concepts are often overlapping in English....
s as well as settlements that have been engulfed by bodies of waterBodies of WaterBodies of Water is a band from the Highland Park neighborhood of Los Angeles, California, signed to independent record label Secretly Canadian. The core group consists of married couple David and Meredith Metcalf. However, the band often plays LA shows with five or more additional musicians, such...
. - Museum studiesMuseumA museum is an institution that cares for a collection of artifacts and other objects of scientific, artistic, cultural, or historical importance and makes them available for public viewing through exhibits that may be permanent or temporary. Most large museums are located in major cities...
is the display and interpretation of past remains for the public. - OsteologyOsteologyOsteology is the scientific study of bones. A subdiscipline of anatomy, anthropology, and archeology, osteology is a detailed study of the structure of bones, skeletal elements, teeth, morphology, function, disease, pathology, the process of ossification , the resistance and hardness of bones , etc...
is the scientific study of bones. - PaleopathologyPaleopathologyPaleopathology, also spelled palaeopathology, is the study of ancient diseases. It is useful in understanding the past history of diseases, and uses this understanding to predict its course in the future.- History of paleopathology :...
is the study of ancient disease amongst animals and humans. - RecceologyRecceologyRecceology is the archaeological term for a group of non-invasive studies, such as topographical evaluation, surface examination, aerial observation, spall measurement, fortification tracing, and environmental measurements.Recceology is conducted both in a technical fashion...
is the study of warfare and the means of warfare from an archeological perspective.
There are also a wide variety of techniques used for post-excavation analysis.