Applicative voice
Encyclopedia
The applicative voice is a grammatical voice which promotes an oblique
argument of a verb
to the (core) object
argument, and indicates the oblique role within the meaning of the verb. When the applicative voice is applied to a verb, its valency
may be increased by one. Applicatives are common in the world's languages, famously so in the case of the Bantu languages
.
English does not have a dedicated applicative prefix or suffix. However, prepositions can be compounded with verbs for an applicative effect. For example, from
the intransitive verb
ran can be made transitive, and the oblique noun giant the object:
The applicative verb can be made passive
, something which is not possible with ran:
Many languages, however, do have dedicated morphology
(commonly several affixes), for applicative uses. For example, in Yagua
"He blows into it" may be expressed as saduu ráviimú, where saduu is "blow" with a third person subject, and ráviimú is an oblique meaning "into an inanimate object." Expressed with an applicative it is saduutára, where ta is a locative
applicative and the locative oblique is no longer present. The verb indicates both the agent as before and adds an object through ra. Applicative constructions are found in various languages, particularly in highly agglutinative language
s, such as Bella Coola (Nuxálk)
, Ubykh
, Ainu
and Bemba
.
Swahili
has an applicative suffix -i or -e which appears before the last vowel of the verb. From andika 'to write', we get transitive
and ditransitive
Similarly, from soma 'to read',
These are sometimes called 'prepositional' forms of the verb because they are translated into English using prepositions: cry for, pray for, eat with, enjoy (be happy about), arrive at, sing to, sell to, send to, open (the door) for, reckon with, see for (himself), die at. However, this name is inaccurate for Swahili, which doesn't use prepositions for such purposes.
A language may have multiple applicatives, each corresponding to such different roles as comitative, locative
, instrumental
, and benefactive
. Sometimes various applicatives will be expressed by the same morphological exponence, such as in the Bantu
language Chichewa, where the infix -ir- forms both instrumental and locative applicatives. Some languages, such as Ganda, permit a 'second applicative' (known in Ganda as the Augmentive Applied), formed by a double application of the infix. In this case the second applicative is used to give an alternative meaning.
Applicatives may also be the only way of expressing such roles, as in the Bantu language Kichaga, where instrumental, benefactive, malefactive, and locative are formed solely by applicatives. In other languages applicatives coexist with other methods of expressing said roles. In these languages applicatives are often used to bring a normally oblique argument into special focus, or as in Nez Percé
, to keep humans as core arguments.
Applicatives have a degree of overlap with causative
s, and in some languages the two are realised identically. While differing from true applicatives, a similar construction known as dative shift
ing occurs in other languages, including English.
Oblique case
An oblique case in linguistics is a noun case of synthetic languages that is used generally when a noun is the object of a verb or a preposition...
argument of a verb
Verb
A verb, from the Latin verbum meaning word, is a word that in syntax conveys an action , or a state of being . In the usual description of English, the basic form, with or without the particle to, is the infinitive...
to the (core) object
Object (grammar)
An object in grammar is part of a sentence, and often part of the predicate. It denotes somebody or something involved in the subject's "performance" of the verb. Basically, it is what or whom the verb is acting upon...
argument, and indicates the oblique role within the meaning of the verb. When the applicative voice is applied to a verb, its valency
Valency (linguistics)
In linguistics, verb valency or valence refers to the number of arguments controlled by a verbal predicate. It is related, though not identical, to verb transitivity, which counts only object arguments of the verbal predicate...
may be increased by one. Applicatives are common in the world's languages, famously so in the case of the Bantu languages
Bantu languages
The Bantu languages constitute a traditional sub-branch of the Niger–Congo languages. There are about 250 Bantu languages by the criterion of mutual intelligibility, though the distinction between language and dialect is often unclear, and Ethnologue counts 535 languages...
.
English does not have a dedicated applicative prefix or suffix. However, prepositions can be compounded with verbs for an applicative effect. For example, from
- Jack ran faster than the giant,
the intransitive verb
Intransitive verb
In grammar, an intransitive verb is a verb that has no object. This differs from a transitive verb, which takes one or more objects. Both classes of verb are related to the concept of the transitivity of a verb....
ran can be made transitive, and the oblique noun giant the object:
- Jack outran the giant.
The applicative verb can be made passive
Passive voice
Passive voice is a grammatical voice common in many of the world's languages. Passive is used in a clause whose subject expresses the theme or patient of the main verb. That is, the subject undergoes an action or has its state changed. A sentence whose theme is marked as grammatical subject is...
, something which is not possible with ran:
- The giant was outrun by Jack.
Many languages, however, do have dedicated morphology
Morphology (linguistics)
In linguistics, morphology is the identification, analysis and description, in a language, of the structure of morphemes and other linguistic units, such as words, affixes, parts of speech, intonation/stress, or implied context...
(commonly several affixes), for applicative uses. For example, in Yagua
Yagua language
The Yagua language is spoken by the Yagua people, primarily in northeastern Peru. As of 2005, it appears that a few speakers may have migrated northward across the Peruvian-Colombian border near the town of Leticia...
"He blows into it" may be expressed as saduu ráviimú, where saduu is "blow" with a third person subject, and ráviimú is an oblique meaning "into an inanimate object." Expressed with an applicative it is saduutára, where ta is a locative
Locative case
Locative is a grammatical case which indicates a location. It corresponds vaguely to the English prepositions "in", "on", "at", and "by"...
applicative and the locative oblique is no longer present. The verb indicates both the agent as before and adds an object through ra. Applicative constructions are found in various languages, particularly in highly agglutinative language
Agglutinative language
An agglutinative language is a language that uses agglutination extensively: most words are formed by joining morphemes together. This term was introduced by Wilhelm von Humboldt in 1836 to classify languages from a morphological point of view...
s, such as Bella Coola (Nuxálk)
Nuxálk language
Nuxálk is a Salishan language spoken in the vicinity of the Canadian town Bella Coola, British Columbia by approximately 20-30 elders...
, Ubykh
Ubykh language
Ubykh or Ubyx is an extinct language of the Northwestern Caucasian group, spoken by the Ubykh people...
, Ainu
Ainu language
Ainu is one of the Ainu languages, spoken by members of the Ainu ethnic group on the northern Japanese island of Hokkaidō....
and Bemba
Bemba language
The Bemba language, ChiBemba , is a major Bantu language spoken primarily in north-eastern Zambia by the Bemba people and as a lingua franca by about 18 related ethnic groups, including the Bisa people of Mpika and Lake Bangweulu, and to a lesser extent in Katanga in the Democratic Republic of the...
.
Swahili
Swahili language
Swahili or Kiswahili is a Bantu language spoken by various ethnic groups that inhabit several large stretches of the Mozambique Channel coastline from northern Kenya to northern Mozambique, including the Comoro Islands. It is also spoken by ethnic minority groups in Somalia...
has an applicative suffix -i or -e which appears before the last vowel of the verb. From andika 'to write', we get transitive
- Aliandika barua 'he wrote a letter' (a-li-andik-a he--write-)
and ditransitive
- Aliniandikia barua 'he wrote me a letter', or 'he wrote a letter for me' (a-li-ni-andik-i-a he--me-write-).
Similarly, from soma 'to read',
- Alinisomea barua 'he read me a letter', 'he read a letter to me'.
These are sometimes called 'prepositional' forms of the verb because they are translated into English using prepositions: cry for, pray for, eat with, enjoy (be happy about), arrive at, sing to, sell to, send to, open (the door) for, reckon with, see for (himself), die at. However, this name is inaccurate for Swahili, which doesn't use prepositions for such purposes.
A language may have multiple applicatives, each corresponding to such different roles as comitative, locative
Locative case
Locative is a grammatical case which indicates a location. It corresponds vaguely to the English prepositions "in", "on", "at", and "by"...
, instrumental
Instrumental case
The instrumental case is a grammatical case used to indicate that a noun is the instrument or means by or with which the subject achieves or accomplishes an action...
, and benefactive
Benefactive case
The benefactive case is a grammatical case used where English would use "for", "for the benefit of", or "intended for", e.g...
. Sometimes various applicatives will be expressed by the same morphological exponence, such as in the Bantu
Bantu languages
The Bantu languages constitute a traditional sub-branch of the Niger–Congo languages. There are about 250 Bantu languages by the criterion of mutual intelligibility, though the distinction between language and dialect is often unclear, and Ethnologue counts 535 languages...
language Chichewa, where the infix -ir- forms both instrumental and locative applicatives. Some languages, such as Ganda, permit a 'second applicative' (known in Ganda as the Augmentive Applied), formed by a double application of the infix. In this case the second applicative is used to give an alternative meaning.
Applicatives may also be the only way of expressing such roles, as in the Bantu language Kichaga, where instrumental, benefactive, malefactive, and locative are formed solely by applicatives. In other languages applicatives coexist with other methods of expressing said roles. In these languages applicatives are often used to bring a normally oblique argument into special focus, or as in Nez Percé
Nez Perce language
Nez Perce , also spelled Nez Percé, is a Sahaptian language related to the several dialects of Sahaptin . The Sahaptian sub-family is one of the branches of the Plateau Penutian family...
, to keep humans as core arguments.
Applicatives have a degree of overlap with causative
Causative
In linguistics, a causative is a form that indicates that a subject causes someone or something else to do or be something, or causes a change in state of a non-volitional event....
s, and in some languages the two are realised identically. While differing from true applicatives, a similar construction known as dative shift
Dative shift
Dative shifting is a grammatical process by which an oblique argument of a verb, usually one functioning as a recipient or a benefactive , is placed in the same grammatical role as a patient, increasing the valency of the verb and forming a clause with two objects...
ing occurs in other languages, including English.