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Aphasia (from Greek, aphatos : 'speechless'), also known as rhymnasia, is a loss of the ability to produce and/or comprehend language
Language

A language is a form of symbol communication in which elements are combined to represents something other than themselves. Language can also refer to the use of such systems as a general phenomenon....
, due to injury to brain areas specialized for these functions, such as Broca's area
Broca's area

Broca's area is a region of the brain responsible for speech production.The importance of Broca?s area in producing language has been recognized since Paul Pierre Broca reported impairments in two patients he encountered....
, which governs language production, or Wernicke's area
Wernicke's area

Wernicke's area is a part of the human brain that forms part of the Cerebral cortex , on the posterior section of the superior temporal gyrus, encircling the auditory cortex, on the Sylvian fissure ....
, which governs the interpretation of language. It is not a result of deficits in sensory, intellectual, or psychiatric functioning, nor due to muscle weakness or a cognitive disorder
Cognitive disorder

Most common mental disorders affect cognitive functions, mainly memory processing, perception and problem solving. The most direct cognitive disorders are amnesia, dementia and delirium....
.

Dysphasia is a language disorder
Language disorder

Language disorders or Language impairments, as they are also called, are disorders that involve the processing of linguistic information. Problems that may be experienced can involve grammar , semantics , or other aspects of language....
 in which there is an impairment (but not loss) of speech and of comprehension of speech.






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Aphasia (from Greek, aphatos : 'speechless'), also known as rhymnasia, is a loss of the ability to produce and/or comprehend language
Language

A language is a form of symbol communication in which elements are combined to represents something other than themselves. Language can also refer to the use of such systems as a general phenomenon....
, due to injury to brain areas specialized for these functions, such as Broca's area
Broca's area

Broca's area is a region of the brain responsible for speech production.The importance of Broca?s area in producing language has been recognized since Paul Pierre Broca reported impairments in two patients he encountered....
, which governs language production, or Wernicke's area
Wernicke's area

Wernicke's area is a part of the human brain that forms part of the Cerebral cortex , on the posterior section of the superior temporal gyrus, encircling the auditory cortex, on the Sylvian fissure ....
, which governs the interpretation of language. It is not a result of deficits in sensory, intellectual, or psychiatric functioning, nor due to muscle weakness or a cognitive disorder
Cognitive disorder

Most common mental disorders affect cognitive functions, mainly memory processing, perception and problem solving. The most direct cognitive disorders are amnesia, dementia and delirium....
.

Dysphasia is a language disorder
Language disorder

Language disorders or Language impairments, as they are also called, are disorders that involve the processing of linguistic information. Problems that may be experienced can involve grammar , semantics , or other aspects of language....
 in which there is an impairment (but not loss) of speech and of comprehension of speech. The term dysphasia has been eclipsed by the modern usage of the term aphasia particularly in the field of speech and language pathology
Speech and language pathology

Speech-language pathology is the study of disorders that affect a person's speech, language, cognition, voice, swallowing and the Physical medicine and rehabilitation or corrective treatment of physical and/or cognition deficits/Speech disorder resulting in difficulty with communication and/or swallowing....
 so as not to confuse with the swallowing disorder dysphagia
Dysphagia

Dysphagia is the medical term for the symptom of difficulty in swallowing. Although classified under "symptoms and signs" in ICD-10, the term is sometimes used as a condition in its own right....
.

Depending on the area and extent of the damage, someone suffering from aphasia may be able to speak but not write, or vice versa, or display any of a wide variety of other deficiencies in language comprehension and production, such as being able to sing but not speak. Aphasia may co-occur with speech disorders such as dysarthria
Dysarthria

Dysarthria is a motor speech disorder resulting from Brain damage, characterised by poor articulation . Any of the speech subsystems can be affected....
 or apraxia
Apraxia

Apraxia is a neurological disorder characterized by loss of the ability to execute or carry out learned purposeful movements, despite having the desire and the physical ability to perform the movements....
 of speech, which also result from brain damage.

Aphasia can be assessed in a variety of ways, from quick clinical screening at the bedside to several-hour-long batteries of tasks that examine the key components of language and communication. The prognosis of those with aphasia varies widely, and is dependent upon age of the patient, site and size of lesion, and type of aphasia.

Causes

Aphasia usually results from lesion
Lesion

A lesion is any abnormal tissue found on or in an organism, usually damaged by disease or trauma. Lesion is derived from the Latin word laesio which means injury....
s to the language centres of the brain, such as Broca's area
Broca's area

Broca's area is a region of the brain responsible for speech production.The importance of Broca?s area in producing language has been recognized since Paul Pierre Broca reported impairments in two patients he encountered....
. These areas are almost always located in the left hemisphere, and in most people this is where the ability to produce and comprehend language is found. However, in a very small number of people, language ability is found in the right hemisphere. In either case, damage to these language areas can be caused by a stroke
Stroke

A stroke is the rapidly developing loss of brain function due to a disturbance in the blood supply to the brain. According to the National Stroke Association, a "stroke" occurs when a blood clot blocks and artery or a blood vessel breaks, interrupting blood flow to an area of the brain....
, traumatic brain injury
Traumatic brain injury

Traumatic brain injury occurs when an outside force physical trauma the brain. TBI can be classified based on severity, mechanism , or other features ....
, or other brain injury. Aphasia may also develop slowly, as in the case of a brain tumor
Brain tumor

A brain tumor is an abnormal growth of cells within the brain or inside the skull, which can be cancerous or non-cancerous .It is defined as any cranium tumor created by abnormal and uncontrolled Mitosis, normally either in the brain itself , in the cranial nerves , in the brain envelopes , skull, pituitary and pineal gland, or spread from...
 or progressive neurological disease, e.g., Alzheimer's or Parkinson's disease. It may also be caused by a sudden hemorrhagic event within the brain. Certain chronic neurological disorders, such as epilepsy
Epilepsy

Epilepsy is a common chronic neurological disorder characterized by recurrent unprovoked seizure s. These seizures are transient signs and/or symptoms of abnormal, excessive or synchronous neuronal activity in the brain....
 or migraine
Migraine

Migraine is a neurology syndrome characterized by altered bodily perceptions, headaches, and nausea. Physiologically, the migraine headache is a neurological condition more common to women than to men....
, can also include transient aphasia as a prodromal or episodic symptom. Aphasia is also listed as a rare side effect of the fentanyl
Fentanyl

Fentanyl is an odorless, rapid-acting opioid , which depresses central nervous system and respiratory function. It is one of the the most powerful opioids known, with a potency approximately 80 times that of morphine....
 patch, an opioid used to control chronic pain.

Symptoms

Any of the following may be considered symptom
Symptom

A symptom is a departure from normal function or feeling which is noticed by a patient, indicating the presence of disease or abnormality. A symptom is subjective, observed by the patient, and not measured....
s of aphasia:
  • inability to comprehend language
  • inability to pronounce, not due to muscle paralysis or weakness
  • inability to speak spontaneously
  • inability to form words
  • inability to name objects
  • poor enunciation
    Enunciation

    In phonetics, enunciation is the act of speaking. Good enunciation is the act of speaking clearly and concisely. The opposite of good enunciation is mumbling or Slurring in Speech....
  • excessive creation and use of personal neologism
    Neologism

    A neologism is a newly coined word that may be in the process of entering common use, but has not yet been accepted into mainstream language . Neologisms are often directly attributable to a specific person, publication, period, or event....
    s
  • inability to repeat a phrase
  • persistent repetition of phrases
  • paraphasia
    Paraphasia

    Paraphasia is a notable feature of aphasia in which one loses the ability of speaking correctly, substitutes one word for another, and changes words and sentences in an inappropriate way....
     (substituting letters, syllables or words)
  • agrammatism
    Agrammatism

    Agrammatism is a form of expressive aphasia that refers to the inability to speak in a grammar correct fashion. People with agrammatism may have telegraphic speech, a unique Speech communication pattern with simplified formation of sentences , akin to that found in telegraph messages....
     (inability to speak in a grammatically correct fashion)
  • dysprosody
    Dysprosody

    Dysprosody is a type of speech disorder that occurs following a lesion of the nondominant hemisphere of the brain. In dysprosody, the patient has difficulty in the expression or comprehension of the emotional components of speech, such as melody, emphasis, inflection, and gesturing....
     (alterations in inflexion, stress, and rhythm)
  • incompleted sentences
  • inability to read
    Reading (process)

    Reading is a complex cognitive process of decoding symbols for the purpose of deriving meaning and/or constructing meaning. Written information is received by the retina, processed by the primary visual cortex, and interpreted in Wernicke's area....
  • inability to write
    Writing

    Writing is the representation of language in a textual Media through the use of a set of signs or symbols . It is distinguished from illustration, such as cave drawing and painting, and the recording of language via a non-textual medium such as Magnetic tape sound recording....


Types

The following table summarizes some major characteristics of different types of aphasia:
Type of aphasia Repetition Naming Auditory comprehension Fluency Presentation
Wernicke's aphasia mild–mod mild–severe defective fluent paraphasic Individuals with Wernicke's aphasia may speak in long sentences that have no meaning, add unnecessary words, and even create new "words" (neologism
Neologism

A neologism is a newly coined word that may be in the process of entering common use, but has not yet been accepted into mainstream language . Neologisms are often directly attributable to a specific person, publication, period, or event....
s). For example, someone with Wernicke's aphasia may say, "You know that smoodle pinkered and that I want to get him round and take care of him like you want before", meaning "The dog needs to go out so I will take him for a walk". They have poor auditory and reading comprehension, and fluent, but nonsensical, oral and written expression. Individuals with Wernicke's aphasia usually have great difficulty understanding the speech of both themselves and others and are therefore often unaware of their mistakes. They are also often unaware of their surroundings, and may present a risk to themselves and others around them.
Transcortical sensory aphasia
Transcortical sensory aphasia

Transcortical Sensory Aphasia, or TSA, is a type of Aphasia where sufferers have poor comprehension, but have fluent, grammatical speech. Patients can communicate well and are capable of good repetition....
 good mod–severe poor fluent Similar deficits as in Wernicke's aphasia, but repetition ability remains intact.
Conduction aphasia
Conduction aphasia

Conduction aphasia, also called associative aphasia, is a relatively rare form of aphasia. An acquired language disorder, it is characterized by intact auditory comprehension, fluent speech production, but poor speech repetition....
 poor poor relatively good fluent Caused by damage to the arcuate fasciculus, the structure that transmits information between Wernicke's area and Broca's area. Auditory comprehension is near normal, and oral expression is fluent with occasional paraphasic errors. Repetition ability is poor.
Nominal aphasia
Nominal aphasia

Nominal aphasia is a severe problem with recalling words or names. It is also known as:* anomic aphasia* amnesic aphasiaAnomia is usually caused by brain trauma, such as an accident, stroke, or tumor....
 mild mod–severe mild fluent Anomic aphasia, is essentially a difficulty with naming. The patient may have difficulties naming certain words, linked by their grammatical type (e.g. difficulty naming verbs and not nouns) or by their semantic category (e.g. difficulty naming words relating to photography but nothing else) or a more general naming difficulty. Patients tend to produce grammatic, yet empty, speech. Auditory comprehension tends to be preserved.
Broca's aphasia mod–severe mod–severe mild difficulty non-fluent, effortful, slow Individuals with Broca's aphasia frequently speak short, meaningful phrases that are produced with great effort. Broca's aphasia is thus characterized as a nonfluent aphasia. Affected people often omit small words such as "is", "and", and "the". For example, a person with Broca's aphasia may say, "Walk dog" meaning, "I will take the dog for a walk". The same sentence could also mean "You take the dog for a walk", or "The dog walked out of the yard", depending on the circumstances. Individuals with Broca's aphasia are able to understand the speech of others to varying degrees. Because of this, they are often aware of their difficulties and can become easily frustrated by their speaking problems. It is associated with right hemiparesis
Hemiparesis

Hemiparesis is weakness on one side of the body. Contrast with Hemiplegia, which is total paralysis of the arm, leg, and trunk on the same side of the body....
, meaning that there will be paralysis of the patient's right arm, leg, and face.
Transcortical motor aphasia
Transcortical motor aphasia

Transcortical Motor Aphasia results from an injury to the anterior superior frontal lobe. The injury is typically caused by a cerebrovascular accident , commonly referred to as a stroke....
 good mild–severe mild non-fluent Similar deficits as Broca's aphasia, except repetition ability remains intact. Auditory comprehension is generally fine for simple conversations, but declines rapidly for more complex conversations. It is associated with right hemiparesis, meaning that there will be paralysis of the patient's right arm, leg, and face.
Global aphasia
Global aphasia

The symptoms of global aphasia are those of severe Broca's aphasia and Wernicke's aphasia combined. There is an almost total reduction of all aspects of spoken and written language, in expression as well as comprehension....
 poor poor poor non-fluent Individuals with global aphasia have severe communication difficulties and will be extremely limited in their ability to speak or comprehend language. They may be totally nonverbal, and/or only use facial expressions and gestures to communicate. It is associated with right hemiparesis, meaning that there will be paralysis of the patient's right arm, leg, and face.
Transcortical mixed aphasia moderate poor poor non-fluent Similar deficits as in global aphasia, but repetition ability remains intact.
Subcortical aphasias Characteristics and symptoms depend upon the site and size of subcortical lesion. Possible sites of lesions include the thalamus
Thalamus

The thalamus is a pair and symmetric part of the brain. It constitutes the main part of the diencephalon....
, internal capsule, and basal ganglia.


Acquired childhood aphasia

Acquired childhood aphasia (ACA) is a language impairment resulting from some kind of brain damage. This brain damage can have different causes, such as head trauma, tumors, cerebrovascular accidents, or seizure disorders. Most, but not all authors state that ACA is preceded by a period of normal language development. Age of onset
Age of onset

The age of onset is a medicine term referring to the senescence at which an individual acquires, develops, or first experiences a condition or symptoms of a disease or disorder....
 is usually defined as from infancy until but not including adolescence
Adolescence

Adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and mental Human development that occurs between childhood and adulthood. This transition involves biological , social, and psychological changes, though the biological or physiological ones are the easiest to measure objectively....
.
ACA should be distinguished from developmental aphasia or developmental dysphasia, which is a primary delay or failure in language acquisition
Language acquisition

Language acquisition is the study of the processes through which learners acquire language. By itself, language acquisition refers to first language acquisition, which studies infants' acquisition of their native language, whereas second language acquisition deals with acquisition of additional languages in both children and adults....
. An important difference between ACA and developmental childhood aphasia is that in the latter there is no apparent neurological basis for the language deficit.
ACA is one of the more rare language problems in children and is notable because of its contribution to theories on language and the brain. Because there are so few children with ACA, not much is known about what types of linguistic problems these children have. However, many authors report a marked decrease in the use of all expressive language. Children can just stop talking for a period of weeks or even years, and when they start to talk again, they need a lot of encouragement. Problems with language comprehension are less common in ACA, and don't last as long.

Classification

Classifying the different subtypes of aphasia is difficult and has led to disagreements among experts. The localizationist model is the original model, but modern anatomical techniques and analyses have shown that precise connections between brain regions and symptom classification don't exist. The neural organization of language is complicated; language is a comprehensive and complex behavior and it makes sense that it isn't the product of some small, circumscribed region of the brain.
No classification of patients in subtypes and groups of subtypes is adequate. Only about 60% of patients will fit in a classification scheme such as fluent/nonfluent/pure aphasias. There is a huge variation among patients with the same diagnosis, and aphasias can be highly selective. For instance, patients with naming deficits (anomic aphasia) might show an inability only for naming buildings, or people, or colors.

Localizationist model

Brocasareasmall
The localizationist model attempts to classify the aphasia by major characteristics and then link these to areas of the brain in which the damage has been caused. The initial two categories here were devised by early neurologists working in the field, namely Paul Broca
Paul Broca

Paul Pierre Broca was a France physician, anatomist, and anthropologist. He was born in Sainte-Foy-la-Grande, France. He is best known for his research on Broca's area, a region of the frontal lobe that has been named after him....
 and Carl Wernicke. Other researchers have added to the model, resulting in it often being referred to as the "Boston-Neoclassical Model". The most prominent writers on this topic have been Harold Goodglass and Edith Kaplan
Edith Kaplan

Edith Kaplan is a respected pioneer of neuropsychological tests who did most of her work at the VA Boston Healthcare System. As a graduate student Kaplan worked with Heinz_Werner_....
.

  • Individuals with Broca's aphasia (also termed expressive aphasia
    Expressive aphasia

    Expressive aphasia, known as Broca's aphasia in clinical neuropsychology and agrammatic aphasia in cognitive neuropsychology, is an aphasia caused by damage to or developmental issues in anterior regions of the brain, including the left inferior frontal region known as Broca's area ....
    ) were once thought to have ventral temporal damage though more recent work by Nina Dronkers using imaging and 'lesion analysis' has revealed that patients with Broca's aphasia have lesions to the medial insular cortex. Broca missed these lesions because his studies did not dissect the brains of diseased patients so only the more temporal damage was visible. Individuals with Broca's aphasia often have right-sided weakness
    Hemiplegia

    Hemiplegia is a condition in which one-half of a patient's body is paralysis. Hemiplegia is more severe than hemiparesis, wherein one half of the body is weakened but not paralysed....
     or paralysis of the arm and leg because the frontal lobe is also important for body movement.


  • In contrast to Broca's aphasia, damage to the temporal lobe
    Temporal lobe

    The temporal lobe is a region of the cerebral cortex that is located beneath the Sylvian fissure on both the left and right hemispheres of the brain....
     may result in a fluent aphasia that is called Wernicke's aphasia (also termed sensory aphasia). These individuals usually have no body weakness because their brain injury is not near the parts of the brain that control movement.


  • Working from Wernicke's model of aphasia, Ludwig Lichtheim
    Ludwig Lichtheim

    Ludwig Lichtheim was a Germany physician. He was educated at the Gymnasium in Breslau, and studied medicine at the universities of Berlin, Zurich, and Breslau, graduating in 1868....
     proposed five other types of aphasia but these were not tested against real patients until modern imaging made more indepth studies available. The other five types of aphasia in the localizationist model are:
  1. Pure word deafness
    Pure word deafness

    Pure Word Deafness is caused by bilateral damage to the posterior superior temporal lobes or disruption of connections between these areas. It exhibits itself as inability to comprehend the meaning of speech, but still being able to hear, speak, read, and write....
  2. Conduction aphasia
    Conduction aphasia

    Conduction aphasia, also called associative aphasia, is a relatively rare form of aphasia. An acquired language disorder, it is characterized by intact auditory comprehension, fluent speech production, but poor speech repetition....
  3. Apraxia
    Apraxia

    Apraxia is a neurological disorder characterized by loss of the ability to execute or carry out learned purposeful movements, despite having the desire and the physical ability to perform the movements....
     of speech, which is now considered a separate disorder in itself.
  4. Transcortical motor aphasia
    Transcortical motor aphasia

    Transcortical Motor Aphasia results from an injury to the anterior superior frontal lobe. The injury is typically caused by a cerebrovascular accident , commonly referred to as a stroke....
  5. Transcortical sensory aphasia
    Transcortical sensory aphasia

    Transcortical Sensory Aphasia, or TSA, is a type of Aphasia where sufferers have poor comprehension, but have fluent, grammatical speech. Patients can communicate well and are capable of good repetition....


  • Anomia is another type of aphasia proposed under what is commonly known as the Boston-Neoclassical model, which is essentially a difficulty with naming. A final type of aphasia, global aphasia
    Global aphasia

    The symptoms of global aphasia are those of severe Broca's aphasia and Wernicke's aphasia combined. There is an almost total reduction of all aspects of spoken and written language, in expression as well as comprehension....
    , results from damage to extensive portions of the language areas of the brain.


Fluent, non-fluent and "pure" aphasias

The different types of aphasia can be divided into three categories: fluent, non-fluent and "pure" aphasias.

  • Fluent aphasias, also called receptive aphasias, are impairments related mostly to the input or reception of language, with difficulties either in auditory verbal comprehension or in the repetition of words, phrases, or sentences spoken by others. Speech is easy and fluent, but there are difficulties related to the output of language as well, such as paraphasia
    Paraphasia

    Paraphasia is a notable feature of aphasia in which one loses the ability of speaking correctly, substitutes one word for another, and changes words and sentences in an inappropriate way....
    . Examples of fluent aphasias are: Wernicke's aphasia, Transcortical sensory aphasia
    Transcortical sensory aphasia

    Transcortical Sensory Aphasia, or TSA, is a type of Aphasia where sufferers have poor comprehension, but have fluent, grammatical speech. Patients can communicate well and are capable of good repetition....
    , Conduction aphasia
    Conduction aphasia

    Conduction aphasia, also called associative aphasia, is a relatively rare form of aphasia. An acquired language disorder, it is characterized by intact auditory comprehension, fluent speech production, but poor speech repetition....
    , Anomic aphasia


  • Nonfluent aphasias, also called expressive aphasias are difficulties in articulating, but in most cases there is relatively good auditory verbal comprehension. Examples of nonfluent aphasias are: Broca's aphasia, Transcortical motor aphasia
    Transcortical motor aphasia

    Transcortical Motor Aphasia results from an injury to the anterior superior frontal lobe. The injury is typically caused by a cerebrovascular accident , commonly referred to as a stroke....
    , Global aphasia
    Global aphasia

    The symptoms of global aphasia are those of severe Broca's aphasia and Wernicke's aphasia combined. There is an almost total reduction of all aspects of spoken and written language, in expression as well as comprehension....


  • "Pure" aphasias are selective impairments in reading, writing, or the recognition of words. These disorders may be quite selective. For example, a person is able to read but not write, or is able to write but not read. Examples of pure aphasias are: Alexia
    Alexia (disorder)

    Alexia is an acquired type of sensory aphasia where damage to the brain causes a patient to lose the ability to read. It is also called word blindness, text blindness or visual aphasia....
    , Agraphia, Pure word deafness
    Pure word deafness

    Pure Word Deafness is caused by bilateral damage to the posterior superior temporal lobes or disruption of connections between these areas. It exhibits itself as inability to comprehend the meaning of speech, but still being able to hear, speak, read, and write....


Cognitive neuropsychological model

The cognitive neuropsychological model builds on cognitive neuropsychology
Cognitive neuropsychology

Cognitive neuropsychology is a branch of neuropsychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the brain relates to specific psychology processes....
. It assumes that language processing can be broken down into a number of modules, each of which has a specific function. Hence there is a module which recognises phonemes as they are spoken and a module which stores formulated phonemes before they are spoken. Use of this model clinically involves conducting a battery of assessments (usually from the PALPA), each of which tests one or a number of these modules. Once a diagnosis is reached as to where the impairment lies, therapy can proceed to treat the individual module.

A few less common subtypes include:
  • Subcortical motor aphasia
  • Subcortical sensory aphasia
  • Mixed transcortical aphasia
    Mixed transcortical aphasia

    Mixed transcortical aphasia is the least common of the three transcortical aphasias . Mixed transcortical aphasia is characterized by severe speaking and comprehension impairment, but with preserved repetition....
  • Acquired epileptiform aphasia (Landau Kleffner Syndrome)
A combination of subtypes is possible.

Primary and secondary aphasia

Aphasia can be divided into primary and secondary aphasia.
  • Primary aphasia is due to problems with language-processing mechanisms.
  • Secondary aphasia is the result of other problems, like memory impairments, attention disorders, or perceptual problems.


History

The first recorded case of aphasia is from an Egyptian papyrus
Papyrus

Papyrus is a thick paper material produced from the pith of the papyrus plant, Cyperus papyrus, a wetland Cyperaceae that was once abundant in the Nile Delta of Egypt....
, the Edwin Smith Papyrus
Edwin Smith papyrus

The Edwin Smith Papyrus is the only surviving copy of part of an Ancient Egyptian textbook on Physical trauma surgery. It is among the world's earliest surviving examples of medical literature, the Kahun Gynecological Papyrus being older, and is the world's oldest surgical document....
, which details speech problems in a person with a traumatic brain injury
Traumatic brain injury

Traumatic brain injury occurs when an outside force physical trauma the brain. TBI can be classified based on severity, mechanism , or other features ....
 to the temporal lobe
Temporal lobe

The temporal lobe is a region of the cerebral cortex that is located beneath the Sylvian fissure on both the left and right hemispheres of the brain....
.

Famous sufferers

  • Maurice Ravel
    Maurice Ravel

    Joseph-Maurice Ravel was a French composer and pianist of Impressionist music known especially for the subtlety, richness, and poignancy of his melodies, orchestral and instrumental Texture and effects....
  • Jan Berry of Jan and Dean
    Jan and Dean

    Jan and Dean were a rock and roll duet , popular from the late 1950s through the mid 1960s, consisting of William Jan Berry and Dean Ormsby Torrence ....
  • Sven Nykvist
    Sven Nykvist

    Sven Vilhem Nykvist was a two-time Academy Award winning Sweden cinematographer. He worked on over 120 films, but is known especially for his work with film director Ingmar Bergman....
  • Ralph Waldo Emerson
    Ralph Waldo Emerson

    Ralph Waldo Emerson was an American essayist, philosopher, poet, and leader of the transcendentalism movement in the early 19th century. His teachings directly influenced the growing New Thought movement of the mid 1800s....
  • Robert E. Lee
    Robert E. Lee

    Robert Edward Lee , was a career United States United States Army officer , an engineer, and among the most celebrated generals in American history....
  • Joseph Chaikin
    Joseph Chaikin

    Joseph Chaikin was an United States theatre Theatre director, playwright, and pedagogue....
  • Antony Flew
    Antony Flew

    Professor Antony Garrard Newton Flew is a United Kingdom philosopher. Belonging to the Analytic philosophy and Evidentialism schools of thought, he is notable for his works on the philosophy of religion....
  • Bob Woodruff
    Bob Woodruff

    Robert Warren "Bob" Woodruff is an American television journalist. Although his journalism career dates back to 1989, he is most widely known for briefly succeeding Peter Jennings as co-anchor of ABC News' weekday news Broadcasting, World News Tonight in January 2006 ? and, later that month, becoming the first American news anchor to be woun...
  • Kevin Ryder of The Kevin and Bean Show


See also

  • Aphasiology
    Aphasiology

    Aphasiology is the study of Linguistics problems resulting from brain damage. It is also the name of a scientific journal covering the area.These specific deficits, termed aphasias, may be defined as impairments of language production or comprehension that cannot be attributed to trivial causes such as deafness or oral paralysis....
  • Speech disorder
    Speech disorder

    Speech disorders or speech impediments, as they are also called, are a type of communication disorders where 'normal' Manner of articulation is disrupted....
  • Dysnomia disorder
  • Aprosodia
    Aprosodia

    An aprosodia is an acquired or developmental condition marked by an impaired ability to comprehend or generate the emotion conveyed in spoken language....
  • Dysprosody
    Dysprosody

    Dysprosody is a type of speech disorder that occurs following a lesion of the nondominant hemisphere of the brain. In dysprosody, the patient has difficulty in the expression or comprehension of the emotional components of speech, such as melody, emphasis, inflection, and gesturing....


Sources


Handbooks

  • Primary Progressive Aphasia (PPA) Handbook (Northwestern University)
  • Handbook of Speech-Language, Pathology, and Audiology
  • Reference manual for communicative sciences and disorders: speech and language


Bibliographic Databases

  • MLA International Bibliography
  • Linguistics Abstracts Online
  • Linguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts
  • Encyclopedia of the Human Brain
  • PsycINFO


Specialized Bibliographies

  • MD Consult
  • Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection
  • Health Reference Complete (Academic)


Academic references

  • R. Chapey (Ed.) (2001). Language Intervention Strategies in Aphasia and Related Neurogenic Communication Disorders (Fourth Edition). Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.
  • Goodglass, H. & Kaplan, E. (1972). Assessment of Aphasia and Related Disorders. Philadelphia: Lea and Febinger.
  • Kay, J., Lesser, R., & Coltheart, M. (1992). Psycholinguistic Assessments of Language Processing in Aphasia (PALPA). Hove: Erlbaum.
  • Spreen, O. & Risser, A.H. (2003). Assessment of Aphasia. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Tesak, Jürgen. Milestones in the history of aphasia: theories and protagonists. Hove, New York. Psychology Press: 2008.
  • LaPointe, Leonard L. Aphasia and related neurogenic language disorders. New York: Thieme: 2005
  • Duchan, Judith Felson. Byng, Sally. Challenging Aphasia Therapies: Broadening the Discourse and Extending the Boundaries. Hove, New York. Psychology Press: 2004.
  • Papathanasiou, Ilias. De Bleser, Ria. The sciences of aphasia : from therapy to theory. Amsterdam/Boston. Pergamon: 2003


Personal experiences of aphasia

  • Hale, S (2003), The Man Who Lost His Language, Penguin.
  • Paul E. Berger and Stephanie Mensh, How to Conquer the World With One Hand...And an Attitude, 2nd Ed., ISBN 0-9668378-7-8
  • Cindy Greatrex (2005) Aphasia in the Deaf Community.
  • Dardick, Geeta (1991), Prisoner of Silence, Reader's Digest, June issue


External links

  • Description of aphasia and the role of the speech-language pathologist in assessment and treatment.
  • in Ann Arbor, MI, U.S.
  • in Oakland, CA, U.S.
  • in Midland, TX, U.S.
  • Pat Arato Aphasia Center
  • Ottawa, Canada
  • (public domain source)
  • Radio documentary
    Radio documentary

    A radio documentary or feature is a radio documentary programme devoted to covering a particular topic in some depth, usually with a mixture of commentary and sound pictures....
     broadcast on the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
    Canadian Broadcasting Corporation

    The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation , a Canada crown corporation, is the country?s national public radio and television broadcaster. In French, it is called la Soci?t? Radio-Canada ....
    's "The Sunday Edition" program on Sunday, December 15, 2002
  • Documentary film about aphasia that uses drawings to help bridge the gap between hearing, seeing, and comprehending. Directed by Mores McWreath.
  • at University of Washington
    University of Washington

    University of Washington, founded in 1861, is a public research university in Seattle, Washington, Washington, United States. Also known as Washington and locally as UW or the U, it is the largest university in the northwestern United States and the oldest public university on the west coast....
  • (U.S.)
  • (Princeton University
    Princeton University

    Princeton University is a private university university located in Princeton, New Jersey, New Jersey, United States. The school is one of the eight universities of the Ivy League and has the largest per-student Financial endowment in the world....
    )