Anti-Jewish Violence In Poland, 1944–1946 refers to a series of violent incidents that immediately followed the end of the
Second World WarWorld War II, or the Second World War , was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including all great powers, organized into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
in
PolandPoland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe . Poland is bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
and influenced postwar history of Jews in Poland as well as Polish Jewish relations. The exact number of Jewish victims is a subject of debate but the range is estimated as 1,000 to 2,000 Polish citizens of Jewish ethnicity largely those returning to Poland after surviving the war on Soviet territory, but also those who survived the Holocaust in Nazi-occupied Europe,were murdered, constituting 2 to 3 percent of the total number of victims of postwar violence in the country. The incidents ranged from individual attacks to
pogromA pogrom is a form of riot directed against a particular group, whether ethnic, religious, or other, and characterized by killings and destruction of their homes, businesses, and religious centers...
s. Partly as a result of this violence, about one half of the Jewish population (100,000–120,000 out of 180,000–240,000) left Poland by 1948.
Reasons for those deaths have been attributed to rampant and often indiscriminate postwar banditry and civil war, which cost the lives of tens of thousand of people on Polish lands.
Jan T. GrossJan Tomasz Gross is a Polish American historian and sociologist. He is the Norman B. Tomlinson '16 and '48 Professor of War and Society and Professor of History at Princeton University.-Biography:...
notes that "only a fraction of [the Jewish] deaths could be attributed to
anti-semitismAntisemitism is prejudice against or hostility towards Jews, often rooted in hatred of their ethnic background, culture, or religion....
", but sometimes Jews were indeed targeted due to their ethnicity, because of the pre-war and Nazi-inspired
anti-SemitismAntisemitism is prejudice against or hostility towards Jews, often rooted in hatred of their ethnic background, culture, or religion....
(including the
blood libelBlood libels are false and sensationalized allegations that a person or group engages in human sacrifice, often accompanied by the claim that the blood of the victims is used in various rituals and/or acts of cannibalism...
rumors),, because of the concerns that returning Jews would reclaim their property, and resentment towards Jews, seen as overrepresented and supporting the consolidation of power of Soviet and Polish communist regimes, responsible for the repressions against the Polish civil society since 1939, Due to that last motive, among the Jewish victims of violence were the numerous Stalinist functionaries of the new communist regime, assassinated by
anti-communist undergroundThe cursed soldiers is a name applied to a variety of Polish resistance movements that were formed in the later stages of World War II and afterwards. Created by former members of the Polish underground resistance organizations of World War II, these organizations continued the struggle against...
without racial motives, but simply due to their political loyalties.
Background
After the war, Poles and Jews constituted two communities with two different but both tragic war experiences, however the
relations between Polish and Jewish communitiesThe history of the Jews in Poland dates back over a millennium. Poland was home to the largest and most significant Jewish community in Europe and served as the center for Jewish culture, ranging from a long period of religious tolerance and prosperity among the country's Jewish population, to its...
worsened after the
Soviet takeoverThe history of Poland from 1945 to 1989 spans the period of Soviet Communist dominance over the People's Republic of Poland following World War II. These years, while featuring many improvements in the standards of living in Poland, were marred by social unrest and economic depression.Near the end...
of Poland in 1945. Polish Jewish survivors of the Nazi Holocaust returning home were confronted with fears of being physically assaulted, robbed and even murdered by certain elements in the society. The situation was further complicated by the fact that there were more Jewish survivors returning from the
Soviet UnionThe Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. The name is a translation of the , tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik, abbreviated СССР, SSSR. The common short name is Soviet Union, from , Sovetskiy Soyuz...
than those who managed to survive in occupied Poland, thus leading to stereotypes holding Jews responsible for the imposition of
CommunismCommunism is a socioeconomic structure and political ideology that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless society based on common ownership and control of the means of production and property in general. Karl Marx posited that communism would be the final stage in human...
in Stalinist Poland.
Members of the former
Communist Party of PolandThe Communist Party of Poland was a historical communist party in Poland. It was a result of the fusion of Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania and the Polish Socialist Party-Left in the Communist Workers Party of Poland .-1918-1921:The KPRP was founded on 16 December 1918 as...
(KPP) were returning home from the Soviet Union as prominent functionaries of the new regime. Among them, was a highly visible number of Poles of Jewish origin, who became active in the new Polish Communist party and the
Ministry of Public Security of PolandThe Ministry of Public Security of Poland was a Polish communist secret police, intelligence and counter-espionage service operating from 1945 to 1954...
. Their representation in Bolesław Bierut's apparatus of political oppression was considerably higher than their share in the general Polish population. Hypothesis emerged that Stalin had intentionally employed some of them in positions of repressive authority in order to put Poles and Jews "on a collision course." The underground anti-communist press held them responsible for the murder of Polish opponents of the new regime, thus fuelling the anti-Jewish sentiments among ordinary Poles who in general had anti-Communist/anti-Soviet attitudes and further strengthening mythology of "
ŻydokomunaŻydokomuna is a pejorative antisemitic stereotype which came into use between World Wars I and II, blaming Jews for the rise of communism in Poland, where communism was identified as part of a wider Jewish-led conspiracy to seize power.The idea of Żydokomuna continued to endure...
" in Poland. Accusations that Jews are being supportive of the new communist regime and constituted a threat to Poland came also from some high officials of the
Roman Catholic ChurchThe Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church. With more than a billion members, over half of all Christians and more than one-sixth of the world's population, the Catholic Church is a communion of the Western, or Latin Rite Church, and...
in Poland. Pogroms spurred by
blood libelBlood libels are false and sensationalized allegations that a person or group engages in human sacrifice, often accompanied by the claim that the blood of the victims is used in various rituals and/or acts of cannibalism...
rumours among
lumpenproletariatLumpenproletariat is a term first defined by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in The German Ideology and later elaborated on in works by Marx....
— accusing Jews of kidnapping and ritual murder of Polish children — erupted in Krakow, Kielce and other Polish towns. Acts of anti-Jewish violence were also recorded in villages and small towns of central Poland, where the overwhelming majority of attacks occurred. The perpetrators of the anti-Jewish actions were seldom punished and shortly after the Kielce pogrom, violence against Jews had ceased. By the spring of 1947 the number of Jews — in large part repatriated from the
Soviet UnionThe Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. The name is a translation of the , tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik, abbreviated СССР, SSSR. The common short name is Soviet Union, from , Sovetskiy Soyuz...
— declined from 240,000 to 90,000 due to mass migration to the West and to Israel, coupled with the post-Holocaust absence of Jewish life in Poland. "
The flightBerihah, or "Brichah" was the organized effort that helped Jews escape post-Holocaust Europe to Palestine.The movement of Jewish refugees from the DP camps in which they were held to Palestine was illegal on both sides, as Jews were not officially allowed to leave the countries of Central and...
" of Jews from Poland was mainly motivated by antisemitism and political struggle between the Communist regime and the strong opposition to it.
Blood libel
Sporadic public anti-Jewish disturbances or riots were enticed by spread of false
blood libelBlood libels are false and sensationalized allegations that a person or group engages in human sacrifice, often accompanied by the claim that the blood of the victims is used in various rituals and/or acts of cannibalism...
accusations against Jews in a dozen Polish towns -
KrakowKraków , in English also spelled Krakow or Cracow and pronounced
, is one of the largest and oldest cities in Poland and a popular tourist destination. Its historic centre was inscribed on the list of World Heritage Sites as the first of its kind...
,
KielceKielce is a city in south eastern Poland with 202,609 inhabitants . It is also the capital city of the Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship since 1999, previously in Kielce Voivodeship...
,
BytomBytom is a city in Silesia in southern Poland, near Katowice. The central-western district of the Upper Silesian Metropolitan Union - metropolis with the population of 2 millions. Bytom is located in the Silesian Highlands, on the Bytomka river .The city belongs to the Silesian Voivodeship since...
,
BialystokBiałystok is the largest city in northeastern Poland and the second most densely populated city of the country. It is located near Poland's border with Belarus and is the capital of the Podlachia region. In 2006, its population was 294,830...
,
BielawaBielawa is a town in south-western Poland with 31,071 inhabitants . It is situated in Dzierżoniów County, Lower Silesian Voivodeship ; previously, it was in Wałbrzych Voivodeship ....
,
CzestochowaCzęstochowa is a city in south Poland on the Warta River with 248,894 inhabitants . It has been situated in the Silesian Voivodeship since 1999, and was previously the capital of Częstochowa Voivodeship...
,
LegnicaLegnica is a city on the Kaczawa river in south-western Poland. According to official figures for 2006, it has a total population of 105,485....
,
OtwockOtwock is a town in central Poland, some southeast of Warsaw, with 42,765 inhabitants . It is situated on the right bank of Vistula River below the mouth of Swider River. Otwock is home to a unique architectural style called Swidermajer....
,
RzeszówRzeszów is a city in south-eastern Poland with a population of 173,130 inhabitants, as of 02.06.2009. It was granted a town charter in 1354, the capital and largest city of the Subcarpathian Voivodeship , previously of Rzeszów Voivodeship .Rzeszów is served by an international airport, is a...
,
SosnowiecSosnowiec is a city in Zagłębie Dąbrowskie in southern Poland, near Katowice. The central district of the Upper Silesian Metropolitan Union - metropolis with the population of 2 millions. Located in the Silesian Highlands, on the Brynica river .It is situated in the Silesian Voivodeship since its...
,
SzczecinSzczecin - is the capital city of West Pomeranian Voivodeship in Poland. It is the country's seventh-largest city and the largest seaport in Poland on the Baltic Sea. As of the 2005 census the city had a total population of 420,638. In 2007 its population was 407,811.Szczecin is located on the...
,
TarnowTarnów is a city in southeastern Poland with 116,109 inhabitants .The city has been situated in the Lesser Poland Voivodeship since 1999, but from 1975 to 1998 it was the capital of the Tarnów Voivodeship. It is a major rail junction, located on the strategic east-west connection from Lviv to...
The
Kraków pogromThe Kraków pogrom refers to the events that occurred on August 11, 1945, in the city of Kraków, Poland, which resulted in one dead and five wounded victims.-Background:...
of August 11, 1945, was the first anti-Jewish riot in postwar Poland. Rumours of alleged attempt by Jewish woman to kidnap and murder Polish child and alleged discovery of thirteen or even eighty corpses of Christian children that supposedly had been found in
Kupa SynagogueKupa Synagogue is a 17th century synagogue in Kraków, Poland. It is located in the former Jewish quarter of Kazimierz developed from a neighborhood earmarked in 1495 by King Jan I Olbracht for the Jewish community, which has been transferred from the budding Old Town...
served as a pretext to start the pogrom. During the riot, Jews were attacked in
KazimierzKazimierz is a historical district of Kraków , best known for being home to a Jewish community from the 14th century until the Second World War.-Early History:...
, and other parts of Old Town, resulting in one death. Fire was set in Kupa Synagogue.
Kielce pogrom
A
pogromThe Kielce pogrom was an outbreak of violence against the Jewish community of Kielce, Poland on July 4, 1946. It was perpetrated by the communist police, soldiers and an angry mob of non-Jewish locals...
(the causes of which are still somewhat controversial) , coupled with the ritual murder accusations, erupted in Kielce on July 4, 1946. The rumour that Polish boy was kidnapped but managed to escape from Jewish captivity, and that other Polish children had been ritually murdered by the Jews ignited violent public reaction directed at the Jewish Center. Actions against Jewish residents of Kielce was provoked by units of the communist militia and Soviet controlled Polish Army who confirmed the rumors of the kidnapped Polish child. The police and soldiers were also the first to fire shots at the Jews giving civilians a pretext to join the fray. Pogrom in Kielce resulted in 37 people being murdered and many more injured but the number of victims does not reflect committed atrocities. Kielce pogrom was a turning point for the postwar history of Polish Jews where many concluded that there was no future for Jews in Poland. Soon after, Communist authorities allowed Polish Jews to leave Poland without visas or exit permits. and
Jewish emigrationBerihah, or "Brichah" was the organized effort that helped Jews escape post-Holocaust Europe to Palestine.The movement of Jewish refugees from the DP camps in which they were held to Palestine was illegal on both sides, as Jews were not officially allowed to leave the countries of Central and...
from Poland increased dramatically.
Number of victims
A number of historians, including Antony Polonsky and
Jan T. GrossJan Tomasz Gross is a Polish American historian and sociologist. He is the Norman B. Tomlinson '16 and '48 Professor of War and Society and Professor of History at Princeton University.-Biography:...
cite the figures originating from Dobroszycki's 1973 work. Dobroszycki wrote that "according to general estimates 1500 Jews lost their lives in Poland from liberation until the summer of 1947" , but Jan Gross, the author who cites Dobroszycki, says that only a fraction of these deaths can be attributed to antisemitism and that most were due to general post war disorder, political violence and banditry. David Engel of
New York UniversityNew York University is a private, nonsectarian, research university in New York City. NYU's main campus is situated in the Greenwich Village section of Manhattan...
stated that Dobroszycki "offered no reference for such 'general estimates'" which "have not been confirmed by any other investigator" and "no proof-text for this figure" exists, not even a smaller one of 1000 claimed by Gutman. Engel wrote that "both estimates seem high." Other estimates include those of Anna Cichopek claiming more than 1000 Jews murdered in Poland between 1944 and 1947 while Dr Lidiya Milyakova of
Russian Academy of SciencesThe Russian Academy of Sciences consists of the national academy of Russia and a network of scientific research institutes from across the Russian Federation as well as auxiliary scientific and social units like libraries, publishers and hospitals.Headquartered in Moscow, the Academy is...
placed that number at 1500-1800. Similarly, according to a Jewish historian Stefan Grajek around 1000 Jews were murdered in the first half of year 1946. Polish historian
Tadeusz PiotrowskiTadeusz Piotrowski or Thaddeus Piotrowski is a Polish-American sociologist. He is a Professor of Sociology in the Social Science Division of the University of New Hampshire at Manchester in Manchester, New Hampshire, where he lives....
cites 1500-2000 victims between the years 1944 and 1947 due to general civil strife that came about with Soviet consolidation of power, constituting 2 to 3 percent of the total number of victims of postwar violence in the country.
A statistical compendium of "Jewish deaths by violence for which specific record is extant, by month and province" was compiled by
the
Yad VashemYad Vashem is Israel's official memorial to the Jewish victims of the Holocaust established in 1953 through the Yad Vashem Law passed by the Knesset, Israel's parliament.The origin of the name is from a Biblical verse: "And to them will I give in my house and within my walls a memorial and...
ShoahShoah may refer to:*The Holocaust*Shoah * A Shoah Foundation...
Resource Center's International School for Holocaust Studies. The study used as a starting point a 1973 report by historian
Lucjan DobroszyckiLucjan Dobroszycki was a Polish scientist and historian specializing in modern Polish and Polish-Jewish history. A survivor of the Łódź Ghetto and Nazi concentration camps including Auschwitz, Dobroszycki lived in Poland after World War II where he obtained his education and worked as a historian...
, who wrote that he had "analyzed records, reports, cables, protocols and press-cuttings of the period pertaining to anti-Jewish assaults and murders in 115 localities" in which approximately 300 Jewish deaths had been documented.
In the
Yad Vashem Studies report, Holocaust scholar
David EngelDavid Engel is an American historian and Professor of Holocaust and Judaic Studies at New York University. Dr. Engel holds a Ph.D. from the University of California, Los Angeles, and completed postdoctoral study at Hebrew University's Division of Holocaust Studies, Institute for Contemporary Jewry...
writes
"[Dobroszycki] did not report the results of that analysis except in the most general terms, nor did he indicate the specific sources from which he had compiled his list of cases. Nevertheless, a separate, systematic examination of the relevant files in the archive of the Polish Ministry of Public Administration, supplemented by reports prepared by the United States embassy in Warsaw and by Jewish sources in Poland, as well as by bulletins published by the Central Committee of Polish Jews and the Jewish Telegraphic Agency, has lent credibility to Dobroszycki's claim: it has turned up more or less detailed descriptions of 130 incidents in 102 locations between September 1944 and September 1946, in which 327 Jews lost their lives."
The data from the Yad Vashem study are reproduced in the table below.
Engel wrote that the compilation of cases is not exhaustive, suggesting that cases of anti-Jewish violence were selectively reported and recorded, and that there was no centralized, systematic effort record these cases. He cites numerous incidental reports of killings of Jews that for which no official reporting has survived. He concludes that these figures have "obvious weaknesses" and that the detailed records used to compile them are clearly deficient and lacking data from Białystok region. For example, Engel cites one source that shows a total of 108 Jewish deaths during March 1945, and another source that shows 351 deaths between November 1944 and December 1945.
|
Białystok |
Kielce |
Kraków |
Lublin |
Łódź |
Rzeszów |
Warsaw |
Other |
Total |
| Sept 1944 |
. |
. |
. |
. |
. |
. |
1 |
. |
1 |
Oct
Nov
Dec |
.
.
. |
.
.
. |
.
.
. |
6
.
. |
.
.
. |
.
.
. |
.
.
. |
.
.
. |
6
0
0 |
| Jan 1945 |
. |
. |
. |
. |
. |
. |
. |
. |
0 |
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec |
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. |
.
.
15
1
17
3
8
3
.
.
. |
.
.
.
1
.
.
1
.
.
.
. |
.
7
3
2
15
.
3
.
.
.
3 |
.
.
.
8
3
5
1
.
.
.
. |
.
.
.
.
4
.
19
.
.
.
. |
.
.
3
3
6
.
11
.
.
.
. |
.
.
2
.
7
.
4
.
.
.
. |
0
7
23
15
52
8
47
3
0
0
3 |
| Jan 1946 |
. |
. |
. |
. |
. |
. |
. |
1 |
1 |
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sept |
.
.
3
.
.
.
.
. |
2
.
2
2
.
51
.
. |
4
.
20
11
9
.
.
. |
7
12
.
.
5
.
.
3 |
5
.
2
.
1
.
.
. |
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. |
.
.
.
.
.
3
.
. |
5
.
5
2
3
.
.
1 |
22
16
32
15
18
54
0
4 |
| Total |
3 |
104 |
46 |
66 |
28 |
23 |
27 |
30 |
327 |