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Anishinaabe
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Anishinaabe or more properly Anishinaabeg or Anishinabek (which is the plural form of the word) is a self-description often used by the Odawa, Ojibwe, and Algonkin peoples, who all speak closely-related Anishinaabemowin/Anishinaabe languages.
The definition of the term "Anishnaabeg" is First- or Original-Peoples. Another possible definition refers to "the good humans", or good people, that are on the right road/path given to them by the Creator or gitchi-manitou (Anishinaabeg term for God).
Not all Anishinaabemowin speakers, however, call themselves Anishinaabeg.
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Anishinaabe or more properly Anishinaabeg or Anishinabek (which is the plural form of the word) is a self-description often used by the Odawa, Ojibwe, and Algonkin peoples, who all speak closely-related Anishinaabemowin/Anishinaabe languages.
The definition of the term "Anishnaabeg" is First- or Original-Peoples. Another possible definition refers to "the good humans", or good people, that are on the right road/path given to them by the Creator or gitchi-manitou (Anishinaabeg term for God).
Not all Anishinaabemowin speakers, however, call themselves Anishinaabeg. The Ojibwa people who moved to what are now the prairie provinces of Canada are known externally as Saulteaux, and refer to themselves as Nakawe(-k) and their form of the Anishinaabe language as Nakawemowin. Although it must also be stated that the term(s) used to describe a particular Anishinaabeg group differs from region to region.
There are many variant spellings of the Anishinaabe name, depending on the transcription scheme and also on whether the name is singular or plural. Therefore, different spelling systems may indicate vowel length or spell certain consonants differently (Anishinabe, Anicinape); meanwhile, variants ending in -eg/ek (Anishinaabeg, Anishinabek) come from an Algonquian plural, while those ending in an -e come from an Algonquian singular.
The name "Anishinaabe" is realised as Nishnaabe, in some parts of North America as well, most prominently among the Odawa. The cognate word Neshnabé comes from Potawatomi, a people long allied with Odawas and Ojibwes in the Council of Three Fires. Identified as Anishinaabe, but not part of the Council of Three Fires, are the Nipissing, Mississaugas and Algonkin. The Algonkin may use the word Omàmiwinini to distinguish themselves from other Anishinaabe.
Closely related to the Ojibwe and speaking a language mutually intelligible with Anishinaabemowin (Anishinaabe language) are the Oji-Cree (also known as "Severn Ojibwe"). However, their most common self-description is Anishinini (plural: Anishininiwag) and their language Anishininiimowin.
History
According to Anishinaabeg tradition, and from recordings in Wiigwaasabak (birch bark scrolls), they came from the eastern areas of North America, or Turtle Island, and from along the east coast.
There are many oral traditions throughout the Anishinaabeg themselves in regards to creationist stories. One example of which lies in the story of the seven "miigis." According to the oral history, seven great miigis (radiant/iridescent beings in human) form appeared to the Anishinaabe peoples in the Waabanakiing (Land of the Dawn, i.e. Eastern Land) to teach the peoples of the mide way of life. But there was one great miigis that was too spiritually powerful and would kill people in the Waabanakiing whenever they were in its presence. This being would later return to the depths of the ocean leaving the six great miigis left to teach the people.
Each of the six miigis then established doodem (clans) for the people. Of these doodem, five original clan systems appeared:
i) the Awaazisii (Bullhead),
ii) the Baswenaazhi (Echo-maker, i.e., Crane),
iii) the Aan'aawenh (Pintail Duck),
iv) the Nooke (Tender, i.e., Bear),
v) and the Moozoonii (Little Moose), with the later addition of the
vi) sixth doodem, the Waabizheshi (Marten).
After the establishment of the doodem, these six miigis returned into the depths of the ocean as well. It is often said that if the seventh miigis stayed, the oral history surmises it would have established the Animikii Thunderbird doodem.
However, the one miigis that left before the others, returned in a vision relating a prophecy to the people. The prophecy stated that if the Anishinaabeg did not move further west, they would not be able to keep their traditional ways alive because of the many new settlements and people not of Anishinaabe blood that would soon arrive. The eventual migration path of the Anishinaabe peoples, proceeding the foretelling of their future, would become a series of smaller Turtle Islands, confirmed by the miigis shells (i.e., cowry shells). After receiving assurance from the their "Allied Brothers" (i.e., Mi'kmaq) and "Father" (i.e., Abnaki) of their safety in crossing, the Anishinaabeg moved inland, they advanced along the St. Lawrence River to the Ottawa River and through to Lake Nipissing, and then to the Great Lakes.
First of these smaller Turtle Islands was Mooniyaa, which Mooniyaang (Montreal, Quebec) now stands. Here the Anishinaabeg divided into two groups: ones that travelled up the Ottawa River and the core group that proceeded to the "second stopping place" near Niagara Falls.
By the time the Anishinaabeg established their "third stopping place" near the present city of Detroit, the Anishinaabeg divided into six distinct nations: Algonquin, Nipissing, Mississaugas, Ojibwe, Odawa and Potawatomi. While the Odawa established their long-held cultural centre on Manitoulin Island, the Ojibwe established their long-held cultural centre in the Sault Ste. Marie region of Ontario, Canada. With expansion of trade under partnerships with the French and later the British, fostered by availability of Small arms, members of the Council of Three Fires expanded southward to the Ohio River, southwestward along the Illinois River, and westward along Lake Superior, Lake of the Woods and the northern Great Plains. In their western expansion, the Ojibwa again divided, forming the seventh major division of the Anishinaabeg: the Saulteaux.
As the Anishinaabeg moved inland, through both alliances and conquest, various other closely-related Algonquian peoples were incorporated into the Anishinaabe Nation. These included, but not limited to, the Noquet (originally part of the Menomini Tribe) and Mandwe (originally part of the Fox). Other incorporated groups can generally be identified by the individual's Doodem (Clan). Migizi-doodem (Bald Eagle Clan) generally identifies those whose ancestors were Americans and Ma'iingan-doodem (Wolf Clan) as Santee Sioux. Other Anishinaabe doodem migrated out of the core Anishinaabeg groupings, such as the Nibiinaabe-doodem (Merman Clan) that is now found as the "Water-spirit Clan" of the Winnebagos.
Anishinaabe peoples now reside throughout North America in both the northern United States and southern Canada, chiefly around the Great Lakes and Lake Winnipeg.
After this migration, and the onslaught of newcomers to North America, many Anishinaabeg groups would later enter into treaties with the governments of the Dominion of Canada and the United States of America. One such treaty is Treaty 3 (of the Numbered Treaties) in Canada was signed in 1873 between the Anishinaabe (Ojibwa) people west of the Great Lakes and the government of Canada . Through other treaties and relocations as a result of them, some Anishinaabeg are now located in the states of Kansas, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Montana in the United States, and the privinces of Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia in Canada.
Historical relations between the Anishinaabeg and other indigenous groups
Historical relations between the Anishinaabeg and Settlers
The first of the Anishinaabeg to encounter European settlers were those of the Three Fires Confederation, within the states of Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, and Pennsylvania, and southern Ontario, and Quebec.
Although there were peaceful interactions between the Anishinaabeg and the European settlers there were also times of turmoil and war. Many lives were lost on both sides as a result of warfare. But there were different forms of interaction other than warfare which include the fur trade, intermarriage, and as allies. The fur trade involved the Anishinaabeg (as well as other Aboriginal groups) who were relied upon not only for furs but to act as guides throughout the lands of North America. In addition to this the Anishinaabeg (as well as other Aboriginal groups) began to intermarry with the settlers (which would later create the Metis nation), as well as the creation of allies (often through intermarriage).
In French North America
The earliest Europeans to encounter native peoples in the Great Lakes area were the French voyageurs. They were mainly traders, rather than settlers. Many of the French-language place names in Minnesota and Wisconsin were given by these early explorers.
In British North America
In regards to the Anishinaabeg relationship with the British, it was no more different than their relationship with the French. The Three Fires Confederation came out of the interaction with settlers. Originally one people, or a collection of closely related bands, the identities of Ojibwa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi developed after the Anishinaabeg reached Michilimackinac on their journey westward from the Atlantic coast. Using the Midewiwin scrolls, Potawatomi elder Shup-Shewana dated the formation of the Council of Three Fires to 796 AD at Michilimackinac. Fort Michilimackinac was an 18th century French, and later British, fort and trading post in the Great Lakes of North America.
In this Council, the Ojibwe were addressed as the "Older Brother," the Odawa as the "Middle Brother," and the Potawatomi as the "Younger Brother." Consequently, whenever the three Anishinaabe nations are mentioned in this specific and consecutive order of Ojibwe, Odawa, and Potawatomi, it is an indicator implying Council of Three Fires as well. In addition, the Ojibwa are the "keepers of the faith," the Odawa are the "keepers of trade," and the Potawatomi are the designated "keepers/maintainers of/for the fire" (boodawaadam), which became the basis for their name Boodewaadamii (Ojibwe spelling) or Bodéwadmi (Potawatomi spelling). The Ottawa (also Odawa, Odaawa, Outaouais, or Trader) are a Native American and First Nations people. Ojibwe, Ojibwa, Chippewa or Anishinaabemowin in Eastern Ojibwe syllabics) is the third most commonly spoken Native language in Canada (after Cree and Inuktitut), and the fourth most spoken in North America (behind Navajo, Cree, and Inuktitut). Potawatomi is a Central Algonquian language and is spoken around the Great Lakes in Michigan and Wisconsin, as well as in Kansas in the United States, and in southern Ontario in Canada, by fewer than 50 people.
Though the Three Fires had several meeting places, Michilimackinac became the preferred meeting place due to its central location. From this place, the Council met for military and political purposes. From this site, the Council maintained relations with fellow Anishinaabeg nations, the Ozaagii (Sac), Odagaamii (Meskwaki), Omanoominii (Menominee), Wiinibiigoo (Ho-Chunk), Naadawe (Iroquois Confederacy), Nii'inaawi-Naadawe (Wyandot), Naadawensiw (Sioux), Wemitigoozhi (France), Zhaaganaashi (England) and the Gichi-mookomaan (the United States). Fort Michilimackinac was an 18th century French, and later British, fort and trading post in the Great Lakes of North America.
Through the totem-system (a totem is any entity which watches over or assists a group of people, such as a family, clan or tribe .) and promotion of trade, the Council generally had a peaceful existence with its neighbours. However, occasional unresolved disputes erupted into wars. Under these conditions, the Council notably fought against the Iroquois Confederacy and the Sioux. During the Seven Years' War, the Council fought against England.
In the United States
During the Northwest Indian War and the War of 1812, the Three Fires Confederacy also fought against the United States. After the formation of the United States of America in 1776, the Council became the core member of the Western Lakes Confederacy (also known as "Great Lakes Confederacy"), joined together with the Wyandots, Algonquins, Nipissing, Sacs, Meskwaki and others.
Ending with the signing of the Treaty of Greenville of 1795, the government of the United States had attempted to relocate tribes from the United States to the west of the Mississippi River. Many Anishinaabe refugees from the conflict, particularly Odawa and Potawatomi migrated north to British-held areas.
Those who remained were subjected to the Indian Removal policy of the United States, which among the Anishinaabeg, the removal affected the Potawatomi the most. The Odawa were removed from the settlers' paths, so only a handful of communities experienced removal. For the Ojibwa, removal attempts culminated in the Sandy Lake Tragedy and resulted in several hundred deaths. For the Potawatomi, survival without removal meant escaping into Ojibwa-held areas and hiding from the officials of the United States.
After the Sandy Lake Tragedy, the goal of the government changed to the relocation of tribes onto reservations, often consolidating whole groups of communities. However, after the Dakota War of 1862, many Anishinaabe communities in Minnesota were relocated and further consolidated.
In Canada
Population estimates indicates that the American Anishinaabeg population are more numerous than Canada's Anishinaabeg population, but accounting for mixed blood and the fact that many of Canada's Anishinaabeg are not counted during census time this assumption might be just that, an assumption.
The Canadian Anishinaabeg are descended from the northern Lake Superior Anishinaabeg, whose original homeland was probably in the vicinity of the eastern upper peninsula of Michigan, where they would eventually separate, with one group going down into Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, southern Ontario and Pennsylvania, while another group migrated straight westward, while the ancestors of the Canadian Anishinaabeg then commenced to the north, and then to the west, where they would eventually migrate to eastern British Columbia in the 19th century. Future scholars of the Anishinaabeg will eventually learn if all Anishinaabeg are descended from those Anishinaabeg of the eastern upper peninsula of Michigan, or if they are descended from the Algonquin Anishinaabeg of Quebec. Today, we truly can't determine the true origins of the Anishinaabe peoples, but history does point to the upper peninsula of Michigan as their birth lands, but the Algonquins need further intensive study to determine if all Anishinaabe peoples are directly descended from them.
Unlike their American counterparts, the Anishinaabeg of Canada have managed to withstand the efforts of the European settlers and hold onto their languages. 50,000 or more Canadian Anishinaabeg speak their Native tongue. From Quebec, to the eastern lands of British Columbia, the Anishinaabeg reserves are,for the most part, smaller in size allowing for the survival of their languages.
Relations today between the Anishinaabeg and their neighbours
Other indigenous groups
There are many Anishinaabeg Reserves and Reservations, therefore, it has led to the Anishinaabeg sharing some of their lands with other tribes such as the Cree,the Dakota, Delaware, and the Kickapoo, among others. For example can be said for the Anishnabek who "merged" with the Kickapoo tribe may now identify as being Kickapoo in Kansas and Oklahoma. The Prairie Potawatomi were the Ojibwe, Odawa and Potawatomi of Illinois and Wisconsin who were relocated to Kansas during the 19th century.
Canada
Although it can be elaborated on, it is worth noting that the Anishinaabe of Manitoba, particularly those along the east side of Lake Winnipeg, have had longstanding historical conflicts with the Cree people.
United States
The relationships between the various Anishinaabe communities in the United States with the United States government have been steadily improving since the passage of the Indian Reorganization Act; however, several Anishinaabe communities still experience tensions with the State governments, County governments and with non-Native American individuals and their groups.
Major issues facing the various Anishinaabe communities are:
- cultural and language preservation or revitalization
- full and independent Federal recognition: some Anishinaabe communities are recognized by County or State governments, or are recognized by the Federal government only as part of another tribe
- treaty rights: traditional means of support (hunting, fishing and gathering), establishment of reservations or upholding of the reservation boundaries per treaties and their amendments
- personal health: diabetes and asthma affect many Anishinaabe communities at a higher than the general population
- social disparity: poor education, high unemployment, substance abuse/addiction and domestic violence often affect many Anishinaabeg at a higher rates than the general population
Anishinaabe in popular culture
A fictional Anishinaabe clan in Ontario, the Mtigwaki, are featured in the comic strip For Better or For Worse from 2005-2006.
See also
External links
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- (An online journal)
- [https://gcrc.carleton.ca/confluence/display/GCRCWEB/Atlases/ ‘Living’ Cybercartographic Atlas of Indigenous Artifacts and Knowledge]
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