Andrés Avelino Cáceres
Encyclopedia
Andrés Avelino Cáceres Dorregaray (November 10, 1836 – October 10, 1923) was three times President of Peru during the 19th century, from 1884 to 1885, then from 1886 to 1890, and again from 1894 to 1895. In Peru, he is considered a national hero for leading the resistance to Chile
an occupation during the War of the Pacific
(1879–1883), where he fought as a General
in the Peruvian Army
.
. His father, Don Domingo Cáceres y Ore, was a landowner and his mother, Justa Dorregaray Cueva, daughter of the Spanish colonel Demetrio Dorregaray. He was mestizo
; one of his maternal ancestors was Catalina Wanka, an Incaica-Wanka princess. He studied at the Colegio San Ramón in his hometown.
as a cadet
. As part of this unit, he participated in the rebellion led by General
Ramón Castilla
against President
José Rufino Echenique
, which ended with the victory of the former at the Battle of La Palma (January 5, 1855).
Afterwards, he quickly ascended through the military, obtaining the rank of Second Lieutenant
later that year and that of Lieutenant
in 1857. Between 1857 and 1859 he actively supported Ramón Castilla
's government against a rebellion by former president Manuel Ignacio de Vivanco
. During the fighting, Cáceres was severely wounded in the left eye.
and Ecuador
in 1859, Cáceres was still ailing from his wound, but took part in the campaign. After the conflict ended in 1860, Castilla appointed Cáceres to serve as military attaché of the Peruvian delegation to France
and he traveled there. He received treatment for his eye in Paris. Cáceres returned to Peru in 1862 and joined the Pichincha Battalion
in Huancayo
.
, who had allowed the Spanish occupation of the Chincha Islands
in the Vivanco-Pareja Treaty
of 1865. For his criticism he was exiled to Chile
with several other officers but they managed to escape, landing at the southern port of Mollendo
.
They joined the Revolución Restauradora del Honor Nacional (National Honor Restoring Revolution) led by Mariano Ignacio Prado
against Pezet's government. Cáceres participated in the occupation of Lima and later, with Prado as president, in the Battle of Callao
on May 2, 1866 which forced Spanish naval forces to retreat from Peruvian waters and the Chincha Islands
.
to live as a farmer. However, he returned to the political arena in 1872 opposing colonel Tomás Gutierrez
's coup against president Manuel Pardo
. Pardo was the first civilian President of Peru and founder of the influential Civilista Party
which played an important role in Peruvian political history.
His support for Pardo's Presidency earned him support from Civilista Party
leaders and he was appointed head of the Zepita Battalion. As such, in 1874, he suppressed a rebellion led by future Peruvian President Nicolás de Piérola
in Moquegua
. For this action, he was awarded the rank of colonel
and later named prefect
of Cuzco
.
, (April 5, 1879), Cáceres was sent with his Zepita Battalion to the province of Tarapacá
. There, he fought against the Chilean Army
in the battles of San Francisco
and Tarapacá
. In the latter, his intervention was decisive to achieve a Peruvian victory against heavy odds.
Despite this victory, the Peruvian Army
proved incapable of stopping the invasion and was forced to retreat north to the province of Tacna
. Chileans landed north of this position, at Ilo
, from where they attacked the main Peruvian position.
Cáceres played a major role in the reorganization of the Peruvian Southern Army. This Army was deployed around the city of Tacna
together with a Bolivian Army led by the President of Bolivia
himself, General Narciso Campero
. However, the political instability created after Nicolás de Piérola
successfully overthrew Mariano Ignacio Prado
hampered the actions of the Allied Army against the Chileans.
On May 26, 1880, the Battle of the Alto de la Alianza was fought, where the Chileans defeated the combined Bolivian-Peruvian Army. Cáceres had a notable participation in this action after which he retreated to Lima
.
Piérola ordered what was left of the Army to protect the capital, Lima together with poorly armed citizens which were called to the fight. Cáceres was then put at the command of the 5th division of the Reserve. With no reinforcements available, and with the Chilean assault force deploying from the south, Peruvian forces were defeated in the battles of San Juan
and Miraflores
. Cáceres was wounded in the latter combat and taken to Lima. When the city fell in January 1881, he escaped to Jauja
in the mountainous hinterland
of Peru
.
in the region, Cáceres was named Political - Military Chief of the departments
of the center (April 26, 1881). He dedicated himself to organizing resistance against Chilean occupation, conducting a guerrilla war
for which he mobilized
the peasant
population. Thanks to the local support, the difficult terrain and his own military skills, Cáceres defeated several Chilean expeditions sent against him at the battles of Pucará and another battle there in July 1882, Marcavalle, and La Concepción
.
For this feats, he was nicknamed as the Brujo de los Andes (Wizard of the Andes). But in spite of all his talent and resolve, he was finally defeated by the better armed and trained Chilean forces in the Battle of Huamachuco
(July 10, 1883). Even though he tried to regroup, a Peruvian government headed by Miguel Iglesias
signed the Treaty of Ancón
(October 10, 1883), recognizing defeat and bringing an end to the war.
ensued between these two factions. He evaded the enemy's army and attacked Lima on November 28, 1885, forcing Iglesias to resign on December 12. The country was ruled by a Council of Ministers headed by Antonio Arenas
while new elections took place. Running for the Constitutional Party, Cáceres won the elections as sole candidate and assumed as president on June 3, 1886.
The new government faced a serious economic crisis due to a huge debt and the severe damage caused by the War of the Pacific. As a solution for these problems, the Cáceres administration engaged in negotiations with its creditor
s, the result of which was the Grace Contract, signed on October 28, 1888 and approved by the Congress of Peru
on October 25, 1889. Under the agreement, the Peruvian State
handed over control of its railways, a guano concession
, annual payments over 33 years and several minor concessions. In exchange, its creditors agreed to pay the country's debt and expand its railways.
The Grace Contract caused widespread controversy, the Cáceres administration was accused of having sold the country's main assets at a very low price among other things. In any case, the agreement allowed the government to solve its external debt
problem and assured the expansion of Peruvian railways at a time when there were no public resources whatsoever for either task.
Other initiatives undertaken during this period included the end of the use of banknote
s as legal tender
the separation of State incomes between those of the central government and those of the departments
, and a partial consolidation
of the internal debt
. After the victory of Remigio Morales
, the official candidate in the presidential elections of April 13, 1890, Cáceres transferred power to his successor on August 10 of the same year.
Justiniano Borgoño
. Subsequent presidential elections were won by Cáceres amid accusations of fraud
. His second term was inaugurated on August 10, 1894.
There were widespread outbreaks of rebellion
throughout the country, which eventually united under the leadership of former president Nicolás de Piérola
. Rebel forces attacked Lima on March 17, 1895, the ensuing fight was stopped two days later by an armistice
signed under the auspices of the diplomatic corps
. Recognizing his defeat and unpopularity, Cáceres resigned and was replaced by an interim Government Junta
.
, Argentina
from 1895 until 1899. He returned to Perú but left again, this time for Europe where he served as Peruvian ambassador
in the Kingdom of Italy (1905–1911) and the German Empire
(1911–1914). Back in Lima, he supported Augusto B. Leguía
in his campaign for the presidency and his successful coup against José Pardo
in 1919. The new government awarded him the rank of Marshal on November 10, 1919. Cáceres died on October 10, 1923 in the town of Ancón
at the age of 90.
In recent years, in acknowledgement of this symbolism, a group of Peruvian military veterans have organized and adopted the name etnocacerista
after Cáceres. Etnocaceristas now compose the bulk of the support for the Peruvian Nationalist Party
.
An interesting legacy is found in the person of Zoila Aurora Cáceres
, one of his daughters, who left behind a rich oeuvre of writing.
Chile
Chile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...
an occupation during the War of the Pacific
War of the Pacific
The War of the Pacific took place in western South America from 1879 through 1883. Chile fought against Bolivia and Peru. Despite cooperation among the three nations in the war against Spain, disputes soon arose over the mineral-rich Peruvian provinces of Tarapaca, Tacna, and Arica, and the...
(1879–1883), where he fought as a General
General
A general officer is an officer of high military rank, usually in the army, and in some nations, the air force. The term is widely used by many nations of the world, and when a country uses a different term, there is an equivalent title given....
in the Peruvian Army
Peruvian Army
The Peruvian Army is the branch of the Peruvian Armed Forces tasked with safeguarding the independence, sovereignty and integrity of national territory on land through military force. Additional missions include assistance in safeguarding internal security, conducting disaster relief operations...
.
Early years
Andrés Avelino Cáceres was born on November 10, 1836, in the city of AyacuchoAyacucho
Ayacucho is the capital city of Huamanga Province, Ayacucho Region, Peru.Ayacucho is famous for its 33 churches, which represent one for each year of Jesus's life. Ayacucho has large religious celebrations, especially during the Holy Week of Easter...
. His father, Don Domingo Cáceres y Ore, was a landowner and his mother, Justa Dorregaray Cueva, daughter of the Spanish colonel Demetrio Dorregaray. He was mestizo
Mestizo
Mestizo is a term traditionally used in Latin America, Philippines and Spain for people of mixed European and Native American heritage or descent...
; one of his maternal ancestors was Catalina Wanka, an Incaica-Wanka princess. He studied at the Colegio San Ramón in his hometown.
Military career
In 1854, Cáceres abandoned his studies and joined the Ayacucho BattalionBattalion
A battalion is a military unit of around 300–1,200 soldiers usually consisting of between two and seven companies and typically commanded by either a Lieutenant Colonel or a Colonel...
as a cadet
Cadet
A cadet is a trainee to become an officer in the military, often a person who is a junior trainee. The term comes from the term "cadet" for younger sons of a noble family.- Military context :...
. As part of this unit, he participated in the rebellion led by General
General
A general officer is an officer of high military rank, usually in the army, and in some nations, the air force. The term is widely used by many nations of the world, and when a country uses a different term, there is an equivalent title given....
Ramón Castilla
Ramón Castilla
Ramón Castilla y Marquesado was a Peruvian caudillo and President of Peru four times. His earliest prominent appearance in Peruvian history began with his participation in a commanding role of the army of the Libertadores that helped Peru become an independent nation...
against President
President
A president is a leader of an organization, company, trade union, university, or country.Etymologically, a president is one who presides, who sits in leadership...
José Rufino Echenique
José Rufino Echenique
José Rufino Echenique Benavente was President of Peru in 1851.He participated in the Peruvian War of Independence. In 1851, Echenique won the presidential elections to succeed Ramón Castilla. Under his government, the first civil laws of Peru were promulgated...
, which ended with the victory of the former at the Battle of La Palma (January 5, 1855).
Afterwards, he quickly ascended through the military, obtaining the rank of Second Lieutenant
Second Lieutenant
Second lieutenant is a junior commissioned officer military rank in many armed forces.- United Kingdom and Commonwealth :The rank second lieutenant was introduced throughout the British Army in 1871 to replace the rank of ensign , although it had long been used in the Royal Artillery, Royal...
later that year and that of Lieutenant
Lieutenant
A lieutenant is a junior commissioned officer in many nations' armed forces. Typically, the rank of lieutenant in naval usage, while still a junior officer rank, is senior to the army rank...
in 1857. Between 1857 and 1859 he actively supported Ramón Castilla
Ramón Castilla
Ramón Castilla y Marquesado was a Peruvian caudillo and President of Peru four times. His earliest prominent appearance in Peruvian history began with his participation in a commanding role of the army of the Libertadores that helped Peru become an independent nation...
's government against a rebellion by former president Manuel Ignacio de Vivanco
Manuel Ignacio de Vivanco
Manuel Ignacio de Vivanco Iturralde was a Peruvian politician and military leader who held the presidency of Peru from 1843 to 1844. He was born in Valparaíso, Chile...
. During the fighting, Cáceres was severely wounded in the left eye.
War against Ecuador
When war broke out between PeruPeru
Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean....
and Ecuador
Ecuador
Ecuador , officially the Republic of Ecuador is a representative democratic republic in South America, bordered by Colombia on the north, Peru on the east and south, and by the Pacific Ocean to the west. It is one of only two countries in South America, along with Chile, that do not have a border...
in 1859, Cáceres was still ailing from his wound, but took part in the campaign. After the conflict ended in 1860, Castilla appointed Cáceres to serve as military attaché of the Peruvian delegation to France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
and he traveled there. He received treatment for his eye in Paris. Cáceres returned to Peru in 1862 and joined the Pichincha Battalion
Battalion
A battalion is a military unit of around 300–1,200 soldiers usually consisting of between two and seven companies and typically commanded by either a Lieutenant Colonel or a Colonel...
in Huancayo
Huancayo
Huancayo with a rock') is the capital of the Junín Region, in the central highlands of Peru. It is located in Junín Province, of which it is also capital. Situated near the Mantaro Valley at an altitude of 3,271 meters, it has a population of 377,000 and is the fifth most populous city of the...
.
War against Spain
During this period, he became known for his outspoken opposition to President Juan Antonio PezetJuan Antonio Pezet
Juan Antonio Pezet was a Peruvian military officer and politician who served in the positions of Secretary of War, Vice President and President of Peru during his life...
, who had allowed the Spanish occupation of the Chincha Islands
Chincha Islands
The Chincha Islands are a group of three small islands 21 km off the southwest coast of Peru, to which they belong, near the town of Pisco,...
in the Vivanco-Pareja Treaty
Vivanco-Pareja Treaty
The Vivanco-Pareja Treaty was a treaty between Peru and Spain, signifying cooperation between the two nations during the Chincha Islands War. It was signed on January 27, 1865, on board the frigate Villa de Madrid, by Manuel Ignacio de Vivanco and José Manuel Pareja .As a...
of 1865. For his criticism he was exiled to Chile
Chile
Chile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...
with several other officers but they managed to escape, landing at the southern port of Mollendo
Mollendo
Mollendo is a town bordering the Pacific Ocean in southern Peru. It is located in the Arequipa Region and is the capital of both the Islay Province and the Mollendo District...
.
They joined the Revolución Restauradora del Honor Nacional (National Honor Restoring Revolution) led by Mariano Ignacio Prado
Mariano Ignacio Prado
Mariano Ignacio Prado Ochoa was twice the President of Peru, from 1865 to 1868 and 1876 to 1879).-Biography:Born in Huánuco in 1826, he entered the army at an early age and served in the provinces of Southern Peru....
against Pezet's government. Cáceres participated in the occupation of Lima and later, with Prado as president, in the Battle of Callao
Battle of Callao
The Battle of Callao occurred on May 2, 1866 between a Spanish fleet under the command of Admiral Casto Méndez Núñez and the fortified battery emplacements of the Peruvian port city of Callao during the Chincha Islands War...
on May 2, 1866 which forced Spanish naval forces to retreat from Peruvian waters and the Chincha Islands
Chincha Islands
The Chincha Islands are a group of three small islands 21 km off the southwest coast of Peru, to which they belong, near the town of Pisco,...
.
Pardo's Presidency
In 1868, Cáceres decided to end his military career and return to AyacuchoAyacucho
Ayacucho is the capital city of Huamanga Province, Ayacucho Region, Peru.Ayacucho is famous for its 33 churches, which represent one for each year of Jesus's life. Ayacucho has large religious celebrations, especially during the Holy Week of Easter...
to live as a farmer. However, he returned to the political arena in 1872 opposing colonel Tomás Gutierrez
Tomás Gutiérrez
Tomás Gutiérrez was a Peruvian military man who led a coup against President José Balta Montero. From July 22, 1872 to July 26, 1872, Gutiérrez was the de facto leader of Peru and the self-proclaimed "Supreme Leader of the Republic." He was overthrown just four days after his proclamation and lynched...
's coup against president Manuel Pardo
Manuel Pardo
Manuel Pardo y Lavalle was a Peruvian politician and the first civilian President of Peru.Born in Lima, Peru, he was the founder of the most important political party of the era...
. Pardo was the first civilian President of Peru and founder of the influential Civilista Party
Civilista Party
The Civilista Party was a conservative political party in Peru.Founded as a counter measure against the growing power of the military in Peru during the first half of the Republic, the party's sole purpose was to establish a civilian rule in the country...
which played an important role in Peruvian political history.
His support for Pardo's Presidency earned him support from Civilista Party
Civilista Party
The Civilista Party was a conservative political party in Peru.Founded as a counter measure against the growing power of the military in Peru during the first half of the Republic, the party's sole purpose was to establish a civilian rule in the country...
leaders and he was appointed head of the Zepita Battalion. As such, in 1874, he suppressed a rebellion led by future Peruvian President Nicolás de Piérola
Nicolás de Piérola
H.E. Don Jose Nicolás Baltasar Fernández de Piérola y Villena was a prominent Peruvian politician, the Finance Minister and twice President of the Republic of Peru .-Early years:Nicolás de Piérola was born and educated in the southern Peruvian city of Arequipa...
in Moquegua
Moquegua
Moquegua is a city in southern Peru, located in the Moquegua Region, of which it is the regional capital. It is also capital of Mariscal Nieto Province and Moquegua District. It is located 1144 kilometers south from the capital city of Lima.-History:...
. For this action, he was awarded the rank of colonel
Colonel
Colonel , abbreviated Col or COL, is a military rank of a senior commissioned officer. It or a corresponding rank exists in most armies and in many air forces; the naval equivalent rank is generally "Captain". It is also used in some police forces and other paramilitary rank structures...
and later named prefect
Prefect
Prefect is a magisterial title of varying definition....
of Cuzco
Cusco Region
Cusco is a region in Peru. It is bordered by the Ucayali Region on the north; the Madre de Dios and Puno regions on the east; the Arequipa Region on the south; and the Apurímac, Ayacucho and Junín regions on the west...
.
Southern Campaign
At the start of the War of the PacificWar of the Pacific
The War of the Pacific took place in western South America from 1879 through 1883. Chile fought against Bolivia and Peru. Despite cooperation among the three nations in the war against Spain, disputes soon arose over the mineral-rich Peruvian provinces of Tarapaca, Tacna, and Arica, and the...
, (April 5, 1879), Cáceres was sent with his Zepita Battalion to the province of Tarapacá
Tarapacá Region
The I Tarapacá Region is one of Chile's 15 first order administrative divisions. It borders the Chilean Arica and Parinacota Region to the north, Bolivia's Oruro Department on the east, the Antofagasta Region on the south and the Pacific Ocean on the west. The port city of Iquique The I Tarapacá...
. There, he fought against the Chilean Army
Chilean Army
The Chilean Army is the land arm of the Military of Chile. This 45,000-person army is organized into seven divisions, a special operations brigade and an air brigade....
in the battles of San Francisco
Battle of San Francisco
The Battle of San Francisco, also known as Battle of Dolores, fought on November 19, 1879, was the third battle of the Tarapacá Campaign in the War of the Pacific, after Pisagua and Germania...
and Tarapacá
Battle of Tarapacá
The Battle of Tarapacá occurred on November 27, 1879 during the Tarapacá Campaign of the War of the Pacific. A Chilean column of 2,300 soldiers led by General Luis Arteaga recklessly attacked an outnumbering Peruvian contingent of 4,500 troops at Tarapacá commanded by Gen Juan Buendía, resulting in...
. In the latter, his intervention was decisive to achieve a Peruvian victory against heavy odds.
Despite this victory, the Peruvian Army
Peruvian Army
The Peruvian Army is the branch of the Peruvian Armed Forces tasked with safeguarding the independence, sovereignty and integrity of national territory on land through military force. Additional missions include assistance in safeguarding internal security, conducting disaster relief operations...
proved incapable of stopping the invasion and was forced to retreat north to the province of Tacna
Tacna Region
Tacna is the southernmost region in Peru. Its name originates from the Quechua words taka and na , which would mean "a place to hit". This expression is thought to be related to the Quechua conquest of the Aymara people...
. Chileans landed north of this position, at Ilo
Ilo
Ilo is a port city in southern Peru, with some 58,000 inhabitants. It is the largest city in the Moquegua Region and capital of the province of Ilo.-History:...
, from where they attacked the main Peruvian position.
Cáceres played a major role in the reorganization of the Peruvian Southern Army. This Army was deployed around the city of Tacna
Tacna
- Rail :Tacna is served by a cross-border standard gauge railway to Arica, Chile.It is also the location of the National Railway Museum of Peru.-Air:Tacna is served by the Crnl. FAP...
together with a Bolivian Army led by the President of Bolivia
President of Bolivia
The President of Bolivia is head of state and head of government of Bolivia. According to the current Constitution, the president is elected by popular vote to a five year term, renewable once...
himself, General Narciso Campero
Narciso Campero
General Narciso Campero Leyes was president of Bolivia from 1880 to 1884. The Narciso Campero Province was named after him.The offspring of a rich land-owning family from Tarija, he was educated at Chuquisaca's St...
. However, the political instability created after Nicolás de Piérola
Nicolás de Piérola
H.E. Don Jose Nicolás Baltasar Fernández de Piérola y Villena was a prominent Peruvian politician, the Finance Minister and twice President of the Republic of Peru .-Early years:Nicolás de Piérola was born and educated in the southern Peruvian city of Arequipa...
successfully overthrew Mariano Ignacio Prado
Mariano Ignacio Prado
Mariano Ignacio Prado Ochoa was twice the President of Peru, from 1865 to 1868 and 1876 to 1879).-Biography:Born in Huánuco in 1826, he entered the army at an early age and served in the provinces of Southern Peru....
hampered the actions of the Allied Army against the Chileans.
On May 26, 1880, the Battle of the Alto de la Alianza was fought, where the Chileans defeated the combined Bolivian-Peruvian Army. Cáceres had a notable participation in this action after which he retreated to Lima
Lima
Lima is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín rivers, in the central part of the country, on a desert coast overlooking the Pacific Ocean. Together with the seaport of Callao, it forms a contiguous urban area known as the Lima...
.
Lima Campaign
Battle of San Juan
Battle of San Juan may refer to:*Battle of San Juan , a British attack on San Jaun, Puerto Rico, in 1595*Battle of San Juan , a second British attack on San Juan, Puerto Rico, in 1598...
and Miraflores
Battle of Miraflores
The Battle of Miraflores occurred on January 15, 1881 in the Miraflores District of Lima, Peru. It was an important battle during the War of the Pacific that was fought between Chile and the forces of Peru. The Chilean army led by Gen. Manuel Baquedano defeated the army commanded by Nicolás de...
. Cáceres was wounded in the latter combat and taken to Lima. When the city fell in January 1881, he escaped to Jauja
Jauja
Jauja is a city and capital of Jauja Province in Peru. It is situated in the fertile Mantaro Valley, to the northwest of Huancayo , at an altitude of . Its population according to the 2007 census was 16,424....
in the mountainous hinterland
Hinterland
The hinterland is the land or district behind a coast or the shoreline of a river. Specifically, by the doctrine of the hinterland, the word is applied to the inland region lying behind a port, claimed by the state that owns the coast. The area from which products are delivered to a port for...
of Peru
Peru
Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean....
.
La Breña Campaign
As the senior officerOfficer (armed forces)
An officer is a member of an armed force or uniformed service who holds a position of authority. Commissioned officers derive authority directly from a sovereign power and, as such, hold a commission charging them with the duties and responsibilities of a specific office or position...
in the region, Cáceres was named Political - Military Chief of the departments
Department (subnational entity)
Department is the name given to the administrative and political subdivisions of many countries.As a territorial unit, "department" was first used by the French Revolutionary governments, apparently to emphasize that each territory was simply an administrative sub-division of the united sovereign...
of the center (April 26, 1881). He dedicated himself to organizing resistance against Chilean occupation, conducting a guerrilla war
Guerrilla warfare
Guerrilla warfare is a form of irregular warfare and refers to conflicts in which a small group of combatants including, but not limited to, armed civilians use military tactics, such as ambushes, sabotage, raids, the element of surprise, and extraordinary mobility to harass a larger and...
for which he mobilized
Mobilization
Mobilization is the act of assembling and making both troops and supplies ready for war. The word mobilization was first used, in a military context, in order to describe the preparation of the Prussian army during the 1850s and 1860s. Mobilization theories and techniques have continuously changed...
the peasant
Peasant
A peasant is an agricultural worker who generally tend to be poor and homeless-Etymology:The word is derived from 15th century French païsant meaning one from the pays, or countryside, ultimately from the Latin pagus, or outlying administrative district.- Position in society :Peasants typically...
population. Thanks to the local support, the difficult terrain and his own military skills, Cáceres defeated several Chilean expeditions sent against him at the battles of Pucará and another battle there in July 1882, Marcavalle, and La Concepción
Battle of La Concepción
The Battle of Concepción was fought on July 9 and July 10, 1882, during the Sierra Campaign of the War of the Pacific. Heavily outnumbered, the Chilean detachment of 77 men under the command of Lieutenant Ignacio Carrera Pinto was annihilated by a 1.300 Peruvian force, many of them armed with...
.
For this feats, he was nicknamed as the Brujo de los Andes (Wizard of the Andes). But in spite of all his talent and resolve, he was finally defeated by the better armed and trained Chilean forces in the Battle of Huamachuco
Battle of Huamachuco
The Battle of Huamachuco was fought on July 10, 1883, and it was the last major battle of the War of the Pacific. The Chilean soldiers led by Colonel Alejandro Gorostiaga decisively defeated the Peruvian army commanded by General Andrés Avelino Cáceres near the town of Huamachuco...
(July 10, 1883). Even though he tried to regroup, a Peruvian government headed by Miguel Iglesias
Miguel Iglesias
Miguel Iglesias Pino de Arce was a Peruvian soldier and politician who held the presidency of Peru in 1883-5....
signed the Treaty of Ancón
Treaty of Ancón
The Treaty of Ancón was signed by Chile and Peru on 20 October 1883, in the Ancón District near Lima. It was intended to settle the two nations' remaining territorial differences at the conclusion of their involvement in the War of the Pacific and to stabilise post-bellum relations between...
(October 10, 1883), recognizing defeat and bringing an end to the war.
First Presidency (1886-1890)
After the war, Cáceres refused to recognize Iglesias as president so a civil warCivil war
A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same nation state or republic, or, less commonly, between two countries created from a formerly-united nation state....
ensued between these two factions. He evaded the enemy's army and attacked Lima on November 28, 1885, forcing Iglesias to resign on December 12. The country was ruled by a Council of Ministers headed by Antonio Arenas
Antonio Arenas
Antonio Arenas Merino was the interim President of Peru, officially the President of the Government Junta of Peru, from December 3, 1885 to July 5, 1886.-References:...
while new elections took place. Running for the Constitutional Party, Cáceres won the elections as sole candidate and assumed as president on June 3, 1886.
The new government faced a serious economic crisis due to a huge debt and the severe damage caused by the War of the Pacific. As a solution for these problems, the Cáceres administration engaged in negotiations with its creditor
Creditor
A creditor is a party that has a claim to the services of a second party. It is a person or institution to whom money is owed. The first party, in general, has provided some property or service to the second party under the assumption that the second party will return an equivalent property or...
s, the result of which was the Grace Contract, signed on October 28, 1888 and approved by the Congress of Peru
Congress of Peru
The Congress of the Republic of Peru or the National Congress of Peru is the unicameral body that assumes legislative power in Peru.Congress consists of 130 members of congress , who are elected for five year periods in office on a proportional representation basis...
on October 25, 1889. Under the agreement, the Peruvian State
Sovereign state
A sovereign state, or simply, state, is a state with a defined territory on which it exercises internal and external sovereignty, a permanent population, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other sovereign states. It is also normally understood to be a state which is neither...
handed over control of its railways, a guano concession
Concession (contract)
A concession is a business operated under a contract or license associated with a degree of exclusivity in business within a certain geographical area. For example, sports arenas or public parks may have concession stands. Many department stores contain numerous concessions operated by other...
, annual payments over 33 years and several minor concessions. In exchange, its creditors agreed to pay the country's debt and expand its railways.
The Grace Contract caused widespread controversy, the Cáceres administration was accused of having sold the country's main assets at a very low price among other things. In any case, the agreement allowed the government to solve its external debt
External debt
External debt is that part of the total debt in a country that is owed to creditors outside the country. The debtors can be the government, corporations or private households. The debt includes money owed to private commercial banks, other governments, or international financial institutions such...
problem and assured the expansion of Peruvian railways at a time when there were no public resources whatsoever for either task.
Other initiatives undertaken during this period included the end of the use of banknote
Banknote
A banknote is a kind of negotiable instrument, a promissory note made by a bank payable to the bearer on demand, used as money, and in many jurisdictions is legal tender. In addition to coins, banknotes make up the cash or bearer forms of all modern fiat money...
s as legal tender
Legal tender
Legal tender is a medium of payment allowed by law or recognized by a legal system to be valid for meeting a financial obligation. Paper currency is a common form of legal tender in many countries....
the separation of State incomes between those of the central government and those of the departments
Department (subnational entity)
Department is the name given to the administrative and political subdivisions of many countries.As a territorial unit, "department" was first used by the French Revolutionary governments, apparently to emphasize that each territory was simply an administrative sub-division of the united sovereign...
, and a partial consolidation
Debt consolidation
Debt consolidation entails taking out one loan to pay off many others. This is often done to secure a lower interest rate, secure a fixed interest rate or for the convenience of servicing only one loan....
of the internal debt
Internal debt
Internal debt is the part of the total debt in a country that is owed to lenders within the country. Internal debt's complement is external debt....
. After the victory of Remigio Morales
Remigio Morales Bermúdez
Remigio Morales Bermúdez was president of Peru from 1890 to 1894. His predecessor until 1890 was Andrés Avelino Cáceres, his successor was Justiniano Borgoño in 1894. He died while still in office....
, the official candidate in the presidential elections of April 13, 1890, Cáceres transferred power to his successor on August 10 of the same year.
Second Presidency (1894-1895)
Morales Bermúdez died in office on April 1, 1894 and was replaced by vice presidentVice president
A vice president is an officer in government or business who is below a president in rank. The name comes from the Latin vice meaning 'in place of'. In some countries, the vice president is called the deputy president...
Justiniano Borgoño
Justiniano Borgoño
Justiniano Borgoño Castañeda was a Peruvian soldier and politician who briefly occupied the Presidency of Peru during 1894....
. Subsequent presidential elections were won by Cáceres amid accusations of fraud
Electoral fraud
Electoral fraud is illegal interference with the process of an election. Acts of fraud affect vote counts to bring about an election result, whether by increasing the vote share of the favored candidate, depressing the vote share of the rival candidates or both...
. His second term was inaugurated on August 10, 1894.
There were widespread outbreaks of rebellion
Rebellion
Rebellion, uprising or insurrection, is a refusal of obedience or order. It may, therefore, be seen as encompassing a range of behaviors aimed at destroying or replacing an established authority such as a government or a head of state...
throughout the country, which eventually united under the leadership of former president Nicolás de Piérola
Nicolás de Piérola
H.E. Don Jose Nicolás Baltasar Fernández de Piérola y Villena was a prominent Peruvian politician, the Finance Minister and twice President of the Republic of Peru .-Early years:Nicolás de Piérola was born and educated in the southern Peruvian city of Arequipa...
. Rebel forces attacked Lima on March 17, 1895, the ensuing fight was stopped two days later by an armistice
Armistice
An armistice is a situation in a war where the warring parties agree to stop fighting. It is not necessarily the end of a war, but may be just a cessation of hostilities while an attempt is made to negotiate a lasting peace...
signed under the auspices of the diplomatic corps
Diplomatic corps
The diplomatic corps or corps diplomatique is the collective body of foreign diplomats accredited to a particular country or body.The diplomatic corps may, in certain contexts, refer to the collection of accredited heads of mission who represent their countries in another state or country...
. Recognizing his defeat and unpopularity, Cáceres resigned and was replaced by an interim Government Junta
Military dictatorship
A military dictatorship is a form of government where in the political power resides with the military. It is similar but not identical to a stratocracy, a state ruled directly by the military....
.
Later years
After his downfall, Cáceres lived in Buenos AiresBuenos Aires
Buenos Aires is the capital and largest city of Argentina, and the second-largest metropolitan area in South America, after São Paulo. It is located on the western shore of the estuary of the Río de la Plata, on the southeastern coast of the South American continent...
, Argentina
Argentina
Argentina , officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires...
from 1895 until 1899. He returned to Perú but left again, this time for Europe where he served as Peruvian ambassador
Ambassador
An ambassador is the highest ranking diplomat who represents a nation and is usually accredited to a foreign sovereign or government, or to an international organization....
in the Kingdom of Italy (1905–1911) and the German Empire
German Empire
The German Empire refers to Germany during the "Second Reich" period from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871, to 1918, when it became a federal republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of the Emperor, Wilhelm II.The German...
(1911–1914). Back in Lima, he supported Augusto B. Leguía
Augusto B. Leguía
Augusto Bernardino Leguía y Salcedo was a Peruvian politician who twice occupied the Presidency of Peru, from 1908 to 1912 and from 1919 to 1930.-Early life:...
in his campaign for the presidency and his successful coup against José Pardo
José Pardo y Barreda
José Simón Pardo y Barreda was a Peruvian politician who twice occupied the Presidency of Peru, from 1904 to 1908 and 1915 to 1919....
in 1919. The new government awarded him the rank of Marshal on November 10, 1919. Cáceres died on October 10, 1923 in the town of Ancón
Ancón District
Ancón is a district of northern Lima Province in Peru. It is a popular beach resort, visited every summer by hundreds of people from Lima.Officially established as a district on October 29, 1874, the current mayor of Ancón is Jaime Jesús Pajuelo Torres. The district's postal code is...
at the age of 90.
Legacy
In Peru, Cáceres is regarded as a nationalist figure. His image symbolizes resistance against foreign forces for his opposition to the Spanish occupation of the Chincha Islands and, more importantly, for organizing resistance against Chile, Peru's traditional enemy.In recent years, in acknowledgement of this symbolism, a group of Peruvian military veterans have organized and adopted the name etnocacerista
Movimiento Etnocacerista
Peru's Movimiento Etnocacerista is a group of ethnic nationalists....
after Cáceres. Etnocaceristas now compose the bulk of the support for the Peruvian Nationalist Party
Peruvian Nationalist Party
The Peruvian Nationalist Party is a political party in Peru. The ideology of the party is wrongly considered to be nationalism with strong ties to the Movimiento Etnocacerista.Ollanta Humala was the Peruvian Nationalist Party's...
.
An interesting legacy is found in the person of Zoila Aurora Cáceres
Aurora Cáceres
Zoila Aurora Cáceres Moreno was a writer associated with the literary movement known as modernismo. This European-based daughter of a Peruvian president wrote novels, essays, travel literature and a biography of her husband, the Guatemalan novelist Enrique Gómez Carrillo.Her life itself is...
, one of his daughters, who left behind a rich oeuvre of writing.
Sources
Basadre, Jorge, Historia de la República del Perú. Editorial Universitaria, 1983. Tauro del Pino, Alberto, Enciclopedia Ilustrada del Perú. Peisa, 2003.External links
- http://www.ayacucho.info/ayacucho-fotos/museo-andres-caceres-ayacucho.phpPhotos of Andrés Avelino Cáceres Museum in AyacuchoAyacuchoAyacucho is the capital city of Huamanga Province, Ayacucho Region, Peru.Ayacucho is famous for its 33 churches, which represent one for each year of Jesus's life. Ayacucho has large religious celebrations, especially during the Holy Week of Easter...
] - Biography from Biografias y Vidas (in Spanish)
- Biography from Ayacucho site (in Spanish)
- WorldStatesmen.org