Ancient university governance in Scotland
Encyclopedia
The ancient university governance structure in Scotland
is the organisational system imposed by the Universities (Scotland) Acts, a series of Acts of Parliament enacted between 1858 and 1966. The Acts applied to what were termed the 'older universities': the University of St Andrews
, the University of Glasgow
, the University of Aberdeen
and the University of Edinburgh
. Whilst the Acts do not directly apply to the University of Dundee
(except insofar as the 1966 Act made regulation for its independence), the same governance structure was ordained for use by that institution in its Royal charter
. Together these universities are commonly referred to as the ancient universities of Scotland
.
, the General Council
and the Senatus Academicus (rendered in English as the Academic Senate
).
The body will typically consist of the Principal, any Vice Principals, all professors, deans of faculties, heads of schools and colleges, elected representatives of non-professorial academic staff, elected student representatives, the university's chief librarian and any other significant persons specified in university ordinances.
In practice, the chief power of the Senatus Academicus is to elect a number of Assessors to serve on the University Court. The powers granted to the body are theoretically contained s.5 of the 1858 Act to "regulate the teaching and discipline of the University, and administer its property and revenues, subject to the control and review of the University court, as herein-after provided".
Often the full Senatus rarely meets and under Section 5 has a quorum
of one-third of its membership. The Senatus often devolves some of its authority to a smaller Academic Council.
, determines the constitution of its Court, with members coming from within each university, the local community and beyond.
In all the ancient universities other than Dundee, the Court is chaired by the Rector
. Members are also appointed by the General Council, Senatus Academicus and some ex-officio members drawn from the local authority. There are a number of lay-members on the court, as well as representatives drawn from the Students' Representative Council.
The General Council is a corporate body of all senior academics and graduates presided over by the Chancellor of the university, an official which it elects for life. Members who are not also members of the Senatus Academicus are entitled to elect Assessors to the University Court.
Chiefly the General Council is an advisory body, and exists to connect alumni with their alma mater. The General Councils were also connected with the Scottish university constituencies of the Parliament of the United Kingdom until their abolition in 1950.
is nominal head of the university. He is elected for life by the General Council by virtue of s.2 of the Universities (Scotland) Act 1858. The Chancellor is given the statutory duty of awarding degrees, but may delegate this to a Vice Chancellor, which is in practice synonymous with the university Principal.
The involvement of university chancellors varies from institution to institution, in some always participating in academic ceremonies and in others almost never taking this position. The Chancellor is often a member of the Royal Family, a local dignitary or noble or significant academic with some tie to the university or local area. As a consequence, the Chancellor's chief role is often to promote the university rather than involve himself in the organisation of it. The Royal Commission on the Universities and Colleges of Scotland in 1826 defined the role thus-
The Chancellor serves as President of the General Council once elected. He also appoints an Assessor to serve on the University Court. Prior to the episcopacy losing its authority in Scotland, the Chancellor was commonly the local Bishop of the diocese which the university fell within.
The full style of the Principal is 'Principal and Vice Chancellor' - the latter title held as a subsidiary title enabling the Principal to grant degrees in the absence of the Chancellor in accordance with section 2 of the 1858 Act.
.
Following the Protestant reformation
, the previous position became inevitably untenable. As such, the position of Rector evolved and has varied greatly in terms of power wielded throughout history. In recent times, the Lord Rector was given a statutory position by virtue of the 1889 Act to chair the University Court, although the Dundee rectorship
is a notable exception, with the court appointing a lay member instead - and also not formally titled 'Lord Rector'. Gradually the responsibility of the Rector to his electorate ensured that he also functioned as a representative of students within the university, and an external promoter of the university. Rectors in the past century have often been well-known celebrities, politicians or political activists and may not have any personal link to the university beforehand.
Today, Rectors in these universities are elected for three year terms, enabling all students taking a typical four year undergraduate degree to vote at least once. The entire body of students is now typically considered together, in contrast to the old position whereby the Rector was elected by student 'nations' (usually four, divided by the county in which the students originated) within the university - a practice only discontinued in the Glasgow rectorship in 1977. The Edinburgh Rector is, uniquely, elected by both staff and students.
Typically, a Scottish university rector will work closely with the Students' Association and is usually commended to the Chancellor or Vice Chancellor by the President of the Association in order to be ceremonially installed. A rectorial installation is a major academic event often involving a number of traditions, most centrally a Rectorial Address - a speech made to the students and public.
Together the five rectors participate in the Scottish Rectors Group, to represent their common interests.
is a body usually, although not in the case of Glasgow, constituted within a Students' Association for the representation of student interests, particularly related to the academic administration of the university. There is a statutory obligation for the ancient governed universities to have an SRC.
.
of the Parliament
of the United Kingdom
known as the Universities (Scotland) Acts. These Acts of Parliament formed the basis of the modern system of governance in the ancient universities of Scotland
- with the same principles being incorporated into the University of Dundee's Royal charter
. Officially, the Acts may be cited as the 'Universities (Scotland) Acts 1858 to 1966'. Regulation of higher education is, since 1999, a devolved
matter, within the legislative competence of the Scottish Parliament
.
and Marischal College
, also in Aberdeen
, to form the University of Aberdeen
in 1860. The 1966 Act pre-empted the creation of the University of Dundee
from Queen's College of the University of St Andrews. The 1889 Act created a Scottish Universities Committee within the Privy Council and made provisions to allow for the expansion of the Scottish universities. The 1932 Act repealed the requirement for Principals and Professors to declare themselves as being of the Protestant faith, formerly a requirement of the Protestant Religion and Presbyterian Church Act 1707
.
Scotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
is the organisational system imposed by the Universities (Scotland) Acts, a series of Acts of Parliament enacted between 1858 and 1966. The Acts applied to what were termed the 'older universities': the University of St Andrews
University of St Andrews
The University of St Andrews, informally referred to as "St Andrews", is the oldest university in Scotland and the third oldest in the English-speaking world after Oxford and Cambridge. The university is situated in the town of St Andrews, Fife, on the east coast of Scotland. It was founded between...
, the University of Glasgow
University of Glasgow
The University of Glasgow is the fourth-oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotland's four ancient universities. Located in Glasgow, the university was founded in 1451 and is presently one of seventeen British higher education institutions ranked amongst the top 100 of the...
, the University of Aberdeen
University of Aberdeen
The University of Aberdeen, an ancient university founded in 1495, in Aberdeen, Scotland, is a British university. It is the third oldest university in Scotland, and the fifth oldest in the United Kingdom and wider English-speaking world...
and the University of Edinburgh
University of Edinburgh
The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1583, is a public research university located in Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The university is deeply embedded in the fabric of the city, with many of the buildings in the historic Old Town belonging to the university...
. Whilst the Acts do not directly apply to the University of Dundee
University of Dundee
The University of Dundee is a university based in the city and Royal burgh of Dundee on eastern coast of the central Lowlands of Scotland and with a small number of institutions elsewhere....
(except insofar as the 1966 Act made regulation for its independence), the same governance structure was ordained for use by that institution in its Royal charter
Royal Charter
A royal charter is a formal document issued by a monarch as letters patent, granting a right or power to an individual or a body corporate. They were, and are still, used to establish significant organizations such as cities or universities. Charters should be distinguished from warrants and...
. Together these universities are commonly referred to as the ancient universities of Scotland
Ancient universities of Scotland
The ancient universities of Scotland are medieval and renaissance universities which continue to exist until the present day. The majority of the ancient universities of the British Isles are located within Scotland, and have a number of distinctive features in common, being governed by a series of...
.
The tripartite constitution
The ancient structure applies a tripartite relationship of bodies with authority over the university. These are the University CourtUniversity Court
A University Court is an administrative body of a university in the United Kingdom. In England's Oxbridge such a Court carries out limited judicial functions; whereas in Scotland it is a University's supreme governing body, analogous to a Board of Directors or a Board of Trustees.-England:In the...
, the General Council
General Council (Scottish university)
The General Council of an ancient university in Scotland is the corporate body of all graduates and senior academics of each university. They were instituted by the Universities Act 1858, but each has had its constitution and organisation considerably altered by subsequent statutes.The Act of...
and the Senatus Academicus (rendered in English as the Academic Senate
Academic Senate
An Academic Senate is a governing body in some universities and colleges, and is typically the supreme academic authority for the institution.-Scotland:...
).
Senatus Academicus
The Senatus Academicus is the supreme academic body of a university, presided over by the Principal.The body will typically consist of the Principal, any Vice Principals, all professors, deans of faculties, heads of schools and colleges, elected representatives of non-professorial academic staff, elected student representatives, the university's chief librarian and any other significant persons specified in university ordinances.
In practice, the chief power of the Senatus Academicus is to elect a number of Assessors to serve on the University Court. The powers granted to the body are theoretically contained s.5 of the 1858 Act to "regulate the teaching and discipline of the University, and administer its property and revenues, subject to the control and review of the University court, as herein-after provided".
Often the full Senatus rarely meets and under Section 5 has a quorum
Quorum
A quorum is the minimum number of members of a deliberative assembly necessary to conduct the business of that group...
of one-third of its membership. The Senatus often devolves some of its authority to a smaller Academic Council.
University Court
The University Courts were first established for the ancient universities by the 1858 Act and are responsible for the finances and administration of each university. Each university, subject to approval by the Privy Council of the United KingdomPrivy Council of the United Kingdom
Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council, usually known simply as the Privy Council, is a formal body of advisers to the Sovereign in the United Kingdom...
, determines the constitution of its Court, with members coming from within each university, the local community and beyond.
In all the ancient universities other than Dundee, the Court is chaired by the Rector
Rector
The word rector has a number of different meanings; it is widely used to refer to an academic, religious or political administrator...
. Members are also appointed by the General Council, Senatus Academicus and some ex-officio members drawn from the local authority. There are a number of lay-members on the court, as well as representatives drawn from the Students' Representative Council.
General Council
- Main page: General Council (Scottish university)General Council (Scottish university)The General Council of an ancient university in Scotland is the corporate body of all graduates and senior academics of each university. They were instituted by the Universities Act 1858, but each has had its constitution and organisation considerably altered by subsequent statutes.The Act of...
The General Council is a corporate body of all senior academics and graduates presided over by the Chancellor of the university, an official which it elects for life. Members who are not also members of the Senatus Academicus are entitled to elect Assessors to the University Court.
Chiefly the General Council is an advisory body, and exists to connect alumni with their alma mater. The General Councils were also connected with the Scottish university constituencies of the Parliament of the United Kingdom until their abolition in 1950.
Officers
The officers of the ancient universities often predate the Universities (Scotland) Acts which give them statutory authority by centuries.The Chancellor
The ChancellorChancellor (education)
A chancellor or vice-chancellor is the chief executive of a university. Other titles are sometimes used, such as president or rector....
is nominal head of the university. He is elected for life by the General Council by virtue of s.2 of the Universities (Scotland) Act 1858. The Chancellor is given the statutory duty of awarding degrees, but may delegate this to a Vice Chancellor, which is in practice synonymous with the university Principal.
The involvement of university chancellors varies from institution to institution, in some always participating in academic ceremonies and in others almost never taking this position. The Chancellor is often a member of the Royal Family, a local dignitary or noble or significant academic with some tie to the university or local area. As a consequence, the Chancellor's chief role is often to promote the university rather than involve himself in the organisation of it. The Royal Commission on the Universities and Colleges of Scotland in 1826 defined the role thus-
- "The Chancellor is head of the University. He is consulted on all public matters relative to its welfare, and he is also Conservator of its privileges. The power of conferring degrees is vested in him: this he may exercise either personally when present or by his depute when absent, with the advice of the doctors and masters of the University".
The Chancellor serves as President of the General Council once elected. He also appoints an Assessor to serve on the University Court. Prior to the episcopacy losing its authority in Scotland, the Chancellor was commonly the local Bishop of the diocese which the university fell within.
Principal and Vice Chancellor
The Principal is the effective chief executive of the university and president of the Senate, appointed by the University Court. The other senior officials of the university (usually with a specific portfolio of subject or over faculties or colleges) are titled Vice Principals.The full style of the Principal is 'Principal and Vice Chancellor' - the latter title held as a subsidiary title enabling the Principal to grant degrees in the absence of the Chancellor in accordance with section 2 of the 1858 Act.
The Rector
The office of Rector is one of the oldest institutions of university government, dating back to the original papal bulls which formed the earliest of the ancient universities in Scotland. Originally, the Rector was effective head of the university, chosen as an academic from with it, but whose power was diluted by that of the Chancellor - the latter being the official representative of the ChurchRoman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church, with over a billion members. Led by the Pope, it defines its mission as spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ, administering the sacraments and exercising charity...
.
Following the Protestant reformation
Scottish Reformation
The Scottish Reformation was Scotland's formal break with the Papacy in 1560, and the events surrounding this. It was part of the wider European Protestant Reformation; and in Scotland's case culminated ecclesiastically in the re-establishment of the church along Reformed lines, and politically in...
, the previous position became inevitably untenable. As such, the position of Rector evolved and has varied greatly in terms of power wielded throughout history. In recent times, the Lord Rector was given a statutory position by virtue of the 1889 Act to chair the University Court, although the Dundee rectorship
Rector of the University of Dundee
The Rector of the University of Dundee is elected by the matriculated students of the University. From 1967 to 2010 the Rector was automatically a full member of the University Court...
is a notable exception, with the court appointing a lay member instead - and also not formally titled 'Lord Rector'. Gradually the responsibility of the Rector to his electorate ensured that he also functioned as a representative of students within the university, and an external promoter of the university. Rectors in the past century have often been well-known celebrities, politicians or political activists and may not have any personal link to the university beforehand.
Today, Rectors in these universities are elected for three year terms, enabling all students taking a typical four year undergraduate degree to vote at least once. The entire body of students is now typically considered together, in contrast to the old position whereby the Rector was elected by student 'nations' (usually four, divided by the county in which the students originated) within the university - a practice only discontinued in the Glasgow rectorship in 1977. The Edinburgh Rector is, uniquely, elected by both staff and students.
Typically, a Scottish university rector will work closely with the Students' Association and is usually commended to the Chancellor or Vice Chancellor by the President of the Association in order to be ceremonially installed. A rectorial installation is a major academic event often involving a number of traditions, most centrally a Rectorial Address - a speech made to the students and public.
Current Rectors
The five current Rectors are:| University | Rector | Date appointed | End of term |
|---|---|---|---|
| University of Aberdeen Rector of the University of Aberdeen The Lord Rector of the University of Aberdeen is the students' representative and chairman in the University Court of the University of Aberdeen. The position is rarely known by its full title and most often referred to simply as "Rector". The Rector is elected by students of the University and... |
Maitland Mackie | 2012 | 2014 |
| University of Dundee Rector of the University of Dundee The Rector of the University of Dundee is elected by the matriculated students of the University. From 1967 to 2010 the Rector was automatically a full member of the University Court... |
Brian Cox CBE | 2010 | 2013 |
| University of Edinburgh | Iain Macwhirter Iain Macwhirter Iain Macwhirter is a Scottish political commentator, who has worked at both the UK Parliament and Scottish Parliament, presenting the BBC2 programmes "Westminster Live" and "Scrutiny".- Early career :... |
2009 | 2012 |
| University of Glasgow | Charles Kennedy Charles Kennedy Charles Peter Kennedy is a British Liberal Democrat politician, who led the Liberal Democrats from 9 August 1999 until 7 January 2006 and is currently a Member of Parliament for the Ross, Skye and Lochaber constituency.... MP |
2008 | 2014 |
| University of St Andrews Rector of the University of St Andrews The Lord Rector of the University of St Andrews is a university official chosen every three years by the students of the University of St Andrews... |
Kevin Dunion Kevin Dunion Kevin Dunion OBE is the first and current Scottish Information Commissioner, as well as the current Lord Rector of the University of St Andrews.-Early life:... OBE |
2008 | 2011 |
Together the five rectors participate in the Scottish Rectors Group, to represent their common interests.
Students' Representative Councils
A Students' Representative CouncilStudents' Representative Council
A Students' Representative Council represents student interests in the government of a university, school or other educational institution. Generally the SRC forms part of a broader Students' Association which may include other functions such as societies, entertainments and sports Universities...
is a body usually, although not in the case of Glasgow, constituted within a Students' Association for the representation of student interests, particularly related to the academic administration of the university. There is a statutory obligation for the ancient governed universities to have an SRC.
Red undergraduate gowns
Undergraduate students of all the ancient governed universities in Scotland are entitled to wear the red undergraduate gownUndergraduate gowns in Scotland
Undergraduate gowns are a notable feature of academic dress for students at the ancient universities in Scotland.The most famous form of Scottish undergraduate dress is the red or scarlet gown. It is differenced slightly according to the university at which it is worn...
.
The Universities (Scotland) Acts
The following are the ActsAct of Parliament
An Act of Parliament is a statute enacted as primary legislation by a national or sub-national parliament. In the Republic of Ireland the term Act of the Oireachtas is used, and in the United States the term Act of Congress is used.In Commonwealth countries, the term is used both in a narrow...
of the Parliament
Parliament of the United Kingdom
The Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the supreme legislative body in the United Kingdom, British Crown dependencies and British overseas territories, located in London...
of the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
known as the Universities (Scotland) Acts. These Acts of Parliament formed the basis of the modern system of governance in the ancient universities of Scotland
Ancient universities of Scotland
The ancient universities of Scotland are medieval and renaissance universities which continue to exist until the present day. The majority of the ancient universities of the British Isles are located within Scotland, and have a number of distinctive features in common, being governed by a series of...
- with the same principles being incorporated into the University of Dundee's Royal charter
Royal Charter
A royal charter is a formal document issued by a monarch as letters patent, granting a right or power to an individual or a body corporate. They were, and are still, used to establish significant organizations such as cities or universities. Charters should be distinguished from warrants and...
. Officially, the Acts may be cited as the 'Universities (Scotland) Acts 1858 to 1966'. Regulation of higher education is, since 1999, a devolved
Devolution
Devolution is the statutory granting of powers from the central government of a sovereign state to government at a subnational level, such as a regional, local, or state level. Devolution can be mainly financial, e.g. giving areas a budget which was formerly administered by central government...
matter, within the legislative competence of the Scottish Parliament
Scottish Parliament
The Scottish Parliament is the devolved national, unicameral legislature of Scotland, located in the Holyrood area of the capital, Edinburgh. The Parliament, informally referred to as "Holyrood", is a democratically elected body comprising 129 members known as Members of the Scottish Parliament...
.
Other consequences
Aside from providing a constitution for university governance, the Universities (Scotland) Acts also had a number of other consequences for higher education in Scotland. The 1858 Act laid the foundations for a merger between King's College, AberdeenKing's College, Aberdeen
King's College in Old Aberdeen, Scotland is a formerly independent university founded in 1495 and an integral part of the University of Aberdeen...
and Marischal College
Marischal College
Marischal College is a building and former university in the centre of the city of Aberdeen in north-east Scotland. The building is owned by the University of Aberdeen and used for ceremonial events...
, also in Aberdeen
Aberdeen
Aberdeen is Scotland's third most populous city, one of Scotland's 32 local government council areas and the United Kingdom's 25th most populous city, with an official population estimate of ....
, to form the University of Aberdeen
University of Aberdeen
The University of Aberdeen, an ancient university founded in 1495, in Aberdeen, Scotland, is a British university. It is the third oldest university in Scotland, and the fifth oldest in the United Kingdom and wider English-speaking world...
in 1860. The 1966 Act pre-empted the creation of the University of Dundee
University of Dundee
The University of Dundee is a university based in the city and Royal burgh of Dundee on eastern coast of the central Lowlands of Scotland and with a small number of institutions elsewhere....
from Queen's College of the University of St Andrews. The 1889 Act created a Scottish Universities Committee within the Privy Council and made provisions to allow for the expansion of the Scottish universities. The 1932 Act repealed the requirement for Principals and Professors to declare themselves as being of the Protestant faith, formerly a requirement of the Protestant Religion and Presbyterian Church Act 1707
Protestant Religion and Presbyterian Church Act 1707
The Protestant Religion and Presbyterian Church Act 1707 is an Act of the pre-Union Parliament of Scotland which was passed to ensure that the status of the Church of Scotland would not be affected by the Union with England...
.
Anomalies
There are a number of anomalies to the general structures outlined above, although where notable they have attempted to be incorporated into the article itself:University of Dundee
- The University of DundeeUniversity of DundeeThe University of Dundee is a university based in the city and Royal burgh of Dundee on eastern coast of the central Lowlands of Scotland and with a small number of institutions elsewhere....
's status is not governed by the Universities (Scotland) Acts, but instead laid down in the university's Royal CharterRoyal CharterA royal charter is a formal document issued by a monarch as letters patent, granting a right or power to an individual or a body corporate. They were, and are still, used to establish significant organizations such as cities or universities. Charters should be distinguished from warrants and...
. This is the result of Dundee, previously an incorporated college of the University of St Andrews, only attaining independent university status in 1967. While this makes little difference in practice, it separates Dundee somewhat from the other ancients in legal terms. - The Rector of the University of DundeeRector of the University of DundeeThe Rector of the University of Dundee is elected by the matriculated students of the University. From 1967 to 2010 the Rector was automatically a full member of the University Court...
was only granted the style 'Rector' in the Royal Charter and hence is not properly entitled to the formal style of 'Lord Rector'. He also lacks the right to chair meetings of the University Court, with the body electing a lay member instead to carry out this function.
University of Glasgow
- The Glasgow University Students' Representative CouncilGlasgow University Students' Representative CouncilGlasgow University Students' Representative Council was founded on 9th March 1886 and recognised as the legal representative body for students of the University of Glasgow by the Universities Act 1889. The SRC is responsible for representing students' interests to the management of the University...
, unlike in other universities, is not effectively incorporated into a Students' Association as Glasgow maintains two Student Unions (the Glasgow University UnionGlasgow University UnionGlasgow University Union is one of the largest and oldest students' unions in the UK, serving students and alumni of the University of Glasgow since 1885....
and the Queen Margaret UnionQueen Margaret UnionThe Queen Margaret Union is one of two students' unions at the University of Glasgow, Scotland. Founded in 1890, it caters for the social and cultural needs of its members by providing a range of services including, entertainments, catering, shop facilities, bars and games.-History:The Queen...
).
University of Edinburgh
- The Rector of the University of Edinburgh is elected by both staff and matriculated students, as opposed to the other four Rectors who are elected by their university's students alone.
University of Aberdeen
- The University of Aberdeen's Students' Representative Council uses the name 'Students' Association Council', despite its legal name being unchanged, to emphasise its links with the Aberdeen University Students' AssociationAberdeen University Students' AssociationAberdeen University Students' Association is the students' association of the University of Aberdeen, an ancient university in the city of Aberdeen in north east Scotland...
.