Amoy (linguistics)

'''Amoy''' ({{zh|t=廈門話|poj=Ē-mn̂g-ōe}}), also known as '''Xiamenese''' or '''Xiamen dialect''', is a [[Hokkien]] dialect which originally comes from Southern [[Fujian province]] (in Southeast China), in the area centered around the city of [[Xiamen]]. It is highly similar to [[Taiwanese Minnan|Taiwanese]], and is widely known as [[Hokkien dialect|Hokkien]] in [[Southeast Asia]]. Their relation is similar to the one between British English and American English. Amoy is widely considered to be the [[prestige dialect]] within Hokkien and [[Min Nan]] (including Taiwanese) in general. For this reason, Amoy is often simply called Hokkien or Min Nan. Spoken Amoy and [[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]] are both mixtures of [[Zhangzhou]] and [[Quanzhou]] speech. As such, they are very closely aligned [[phonology|phonologically]]. However, there are some subtle differences between the two, as a result of physical separation and other historical factors. The [[lexicon|lexical]] differences between the two are slightly more pronounced. Generally speaking the Hokkien dialects of Amoy, [[Quanzhou]], [[Zhangzhou]], [[Taiwan]], and [[Southeast Asia]] are [[mutually intelligible]]. == History == In 1842, as a result of the signing of the [[Treaty of Nanking]], [[Xiamen]] (Amoy) was designated as a trading port. [[Xiamen]] and [[Gulangyu Island|Gulangyu]] islands rapidly developed, which resulted in a large influx of people from neighboring areas such as [[Quanzhou]] and [[Zhangzhou]]. The mixture of these various accents have formed the basis for Amoy. Over the last several centuries, there have been a large number of descendents from these areas who have migrated to [[Taiwan]]. Eventually, Amoy became popularly known as ''Taiwanese'' among the locals living there. Just like [[British English|British]] and [[American English]], there are subtle lexical and phonologic differences between Taiwanese and Amoy, however these differences do not generally pose any barriers to communication. Amoy speakers also spread to [[Southeast Asia]], where it became widely known as [[Hokkien]]. ==Special characteristics== {{IPA notice}} Spoken Amoy preserves many of the sounds and words from [[Middle Chinese]]. However, the vocabulary of Amoy was also influenced in its early stages by the languages of the [[Minyue]] peoples. Spoken Amoy is known for its extensive use of [[nasalization]]. Unlike [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]], Amoy [[wikt:distinguish|distinguishes]] between [[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]] and voiceless unaspirated [[initials|initial]] [[consonants]] (Mandarin has no voicing of initial consonants). Unlike [[English language|English]], it differentiates between unaspirated and [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]] voiceless initial consonants (as Mandarin does too). In less [[technical term]]s, native Amoy speakers have little difficulty in hearing the difference between the following syllables: {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" !   ! colspan=2 | [[Aspiration (phonetics)|unaspirated]] ! [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]] |- | [[Bilabial consonant|bilabial]] [[Stop consonant|stop]] | bo [[wikt:母|母]] | po [[wikt:保|保]] | pʰo [[wikt:抱|抱]] |- | [[Velar consonant|velar]] [[Stop consonant|stop]] | go [[wikt:俄|俄]] | ko [[wikt:果|果]] | kʰo [[wikt:科|科]] |- !   ! [[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]] ! colspan=2 | [[Voice (phonetics)|voiceless]] |} === Accents === {{main|Min_Nan#Vowel_shifts}} A comparison between Amoy and other Minnan dialects can be found there. === Tones === Amoy is similar to other [[Min Nan]] dialects in that it makes use of five [[tonal language|tones]], though only two in [[entering tone|checked syllables]]. The tones are traditionally numbered from 1 through 8, with 4 and 8 being the [[checked tone]]s, but those numbered 2 and 6 are identical in most regions. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |- ! Tone number !! [[Tone name]] !! [[Tone letter]] |- | 1 || Yin level || {{IPA|˥}} |- | 2|| Yin rising || {{IPA|˥˧}} |- | 3 || Yin falling || {{IPA|˨˩}} |- | 4 || Yin entering || {{IPA|˩ʔ}} |- | 5 || Yang level || {{IPA|˧˥}} |- | 6=2 || Yang rising || {{IPA|˥˧}} |- | 7 || Yang falling || {{IPA|˧}} |- | 8 || Yang entering || {{IPA|˥ʔ}} |} === Tone sandhi === Amoy has extremely extensive [[tone sandhi]] (tone-changing) rules: in an utterance, only the last syllable pronounced is not affected by the rules. What an '[[utterance]]' is, in the context of this language, is an ongoing topic for linguistic research. For the purpose of this article, an utterance may be considered a [[word]], a [[phrase]], or a short [[Sentence (linguistics)|sentence]]. The diagram illustrates the rules that govern the pronunciation of a tone on each of the syllables affected (that is, all but the last in an utterance): [[Image:Amoy tones.svg]] === Literary and colloquial readings === Like other varieties of [[Min Nan]], Amoy has complex rules for [[literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters]]. For example, the character for ''big'', [[wikt:大|大]], has a vernacular reading of ''tōa'' ({{IPA-nan|tua˧|}}), but a literary reading of ''tāi'' ({{IPA-nan|tai˧|}}). Because of the loose nature of the rules governing when to use a given pronunciation, a learner of the language must often simply memorize the appropriate reading for a word on a case by case basis. For single syllable words, it is more common to use the vernacular pronunciation. This situation is comparable to the [[Kanji#On'yomi (Chinese reading)|on]] and [[Kanji#Kun'yomi (Japanese reading)|kun]] readings of [[Japanese language|Japanese]]. The vernacular readings are generally thought to predate the literary readings; the literary readings appear to have evolved from [[middle Chinese]]. {{cite}}The following chart illustrates some of the more commonly seen sound shifts: {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" !Colloquial !Literary !colspan=4| Example |- bgcolor=lightgrey | [p-], [pʰ-] | [h-] | [[wikt:分|分]] | '''p'''un | '''h'''un | ''divide'' |- | [ts-], [tsʰ-], [tɕ-], [tɕʰ-] | [s-], [ɕ-] | [[wikt:成|成]] | '''ch'''iâⁿ | '''s'''êng | ''to become'' |- bgcolor=lightgrey | [k-], [kʰ-] | [tɕ-], [tɕʰ-] | [[wikt:指|指]] | '''k'''í | '''ch'''í | ''finger'' |- | [-ã], [-uã] | [-an] | [[wikt:看|看]] | kh'''òaⁿ''' | kh'''àn''' | ''to see'' |- bgcolor=lightgrey | [-ʔ] | [-t] | [[wikt:食|食]] | chia̍'''h''' | si̍'''t''' | ''to eat'' |- | [-i] | [-e] | [[wikt:世|世]] | s'''ì''' | s'''è''' | ''world'' |- bgcolor=lightgrey | [-e] | [-a] | [[wikt:家|家]] | k'''e''' | k'''a''' | ''family'' |- | [-ia] | [-i] | [[wikt:企|企]] | kh'''iā''' | kh'''ì''' | ''to stand'' |} == Vocabulary == : ''For further information, read the article: [[Swadesh list]]'' The Swadesh word list, developed by the linguist [[Morris Swadesh]], is used as a tool to study the evolution of languages. It contains a set of basic words which can be found in every language. *The [[wikt:Appendix:Amoy Min Nan Swadesh list|Amoy Min Nan Swadesh list]] *The [[wikt:Appendix:Sino-Tibetan Swadesh lists|Sino-Tibetan Swadesh lists]] ([[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]], [[Standard Cantonese|Cantonese]], '''Amoy''', [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]], [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]], [[Burmese language|Burmese]]) == Grammar == Amoy grammar shares a similar structure to other Chinese dialects, although it is slightly more complex than [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]]. Moreover, equivalent Amoy and Mandarin particles are usually not [[cognate]]s. === Complement constructions === Amoy [[Complement (linguistics)|complement constructions]] are roughly parallel to [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]] ones, although there are variations in the choice of lexical term. The following are examples of constructions that Amoy employs. In the case of adverbs: :English: He runs quick''ly''. :Amoy: i cháu ''ē'' kín (伊走會緊) :Mandarin: tā pǎo ''dé'' kuài (他跑得快) :Gloss: He-runs-''obtains''-quick. In the case of the adverb "very": :English: He runs ''very'' quick''ly''. :Amoy: i cháu ''chiok'' kín (伊走足緊) :Mandarin: tā pǎo ''dé hěn'' kuài (他跑得很快) :Gloss: He-runs-''obtains''-quick. :English: He ''does not'' run quick''ly''. :Amoy: i cháu ''bē'' kín (伊走未緊) :Mandarin: tā pǎo ''bù'' kuài (他跑不快) :Gloss: He-runs-not-quick :English: He ''can'' see. :Amoy: i khòaⁿ ''ē'' tio̍h (伊看會著) :Mandarin: tā kàn ''dé'' dào (他看得到) :Gloss: He-see-''obtains''-already-achieved For the negative, :English: He ''cannot'' see. :Amoy: i khòaⁿ ''bē'' tio̍h (伊看未著) :Mandarin: tā kàn ''bù'' dào (他看不到) :Gloss: He-sees-''not''-already achieved For the adverb "so," Amoy uses ''kah'' (甲) instead of Mandarin ''dé'' (得): :English: He was ''so'' startled, that he could not speak. :Amoy: i kiaⁿ "kah" ōe mā kóng boē chhut-lâi (伊驚甲話每講未出來) :Mandarin: tā xià ''dé'' huà dōu shuō bù chūlái (他嚇得話都說不出來) :Gloss: He-startled-to-''the point of''-words-also-say-not-come out === Negative particles === Negative particle syntax is parallel to Mandarin about 70% of the time, although lexical terms used differ from those in Mandarin. For many lexical particles, there is no single standard Hanji character to represent these terms (e.g. m̄, a negative particle, can be variously represented by 毋, 呣, and 唔), but the most commonly used ones are presented below in examples. The following are commonly used negative particles: # '''m̄ (毋, 呣, 唔) - is not + noun''' (Mandarin 不, ''bù'') #: i m̄-sī gún lāu-bú. (伊毋是阮老母) ''She is not my mother.'' # '''m̄ - does not + verb/will not + verb''' (Mandarin 不, ''bù'') #: i m̄ lâi. (伊毋來) ''He will not come.'' # verb + bē (未 or 袂) + particle - is not able to (Mandarin 不, ''bù'') #: góa khòaⁿ-bē-tio̍h. (我看未著) ''I am not able to see it.'' # bē (未) + helping verb - cannot (opposite of ē 會, ''is able to''/Mandarin 不, ''bù'') #: i bē-hiáu kóng Eng-gú. (伊未曉講英語) ''He can't speak English.'' #* helping verbs that go with bē (未) #*:bē-sái (未使) - is not permitted to (Mandarin 不可以 ''bù kěyǐ'') #*:bē-hiáu (未曉) - does not know how to (Mandarin 不会, ''búhuì'') #*:bē-tàng (未當) - not able to (Mandarin 不能, ''bùnéng'') # '''mài (莫, 勿, or 嘜) - do not (imperative)''' (Mandarin 別, ''bié'') #: mài kóng! (莫講) ''Don't speak!'' # bô (無) - do not + helping verb (Mandarin 不, ''bù'') #: i bô beh lâi. (伊無侎來) ''He is not going to come.'' #* helping verbs that go with bô (無): #*:beh (侎 or 欲) - want to + verb; will + verb #*:ài (愛) - must + verb #*:èng-kai (應該) - should + verb #*:kah-ì (合意) - like to + verb # '''bô (無) - does not have''' (Mandarin 沒有, ''méiyǒu'') #: i bô chîⁿ. (伊無錢) ''He does not have any money.'' # '''bô - did not''' (Mandarin 沒有, ''méiyǒu'') #: i bô lâi. (伊無來) ''He did not come.'' # bô (無) - is not + adjective (Mandarin 不, ''bù'') #: i bô súi. (伊無婎 or 伊無媠) ''She is not beautiful.'' #*Hó (good) is an exception, as it can use both m̄ and bô. === Common particles === Commonly seen particles include: *予 (hō·) - indicates [[passive voice]] (Mandarin 被, ''bèi'') *:in hō· lâng phiàn khì (亻因乎儂騙去) - ''They were cheated'' *共 (kā) - identifies the object (Mandarin 把, ''bǎ'') *:i kā chîⁿ kau hō· lí (伊共錢交乎你) - ''He handed the money to you'' *加 (chi̍t) - "more" *:i ke chia̍h chi̍t óaⁿ (伊加食一碗) - ''He ate one more bowl'' *共 (kā) - identifies the object *:góa kā lí kóng (我共你講) - ''I'm telling you'' *濟 (choē) - "more" *:i ū khah choē ê pêng-iú (伊有較濟的朋友) - ''He has comparatively many friends'' == Romanization == A number of Romanization schemes have been devised for [[Amoy]]. [[Pe̍h-ōe-jī|{{Unicode|Pe̍h-ōe-jī}}]] is one of the oldest and best established. However, the [[TLPA|Taiwanese Language Phonetic Alphabet]] has become the romanization of choice for many of the recent textbooks and dictionaries from Taiwan. {{POJtable}} == See also == *[[Languages of China]] *[[Min Nan]] *[[Quanzhou dialect|Quanzhou]] *[[Zhangzhou dialect|Zhangzhou]] *[[Taiwanese Minnan|Taiwanese]] *[[Penang Hokkien]] *[[Lan-nang]] *[[Filipino-Mandarin]] *[[Demographics of Taiwan#Languages|Languages of Taiwan]] *[[Chinese in Singapore]] *[[Written Hokkien]] *[[wikt:Appendix:Amoy Min Nan Swadesh list|Amoy Min Nan Swadesh list]] *[[wikt:Appendix:Sino-Tibetan Swadesh lists|Sino-Tibetan Swadesh lists]] == Sources ==) | language = Mandarin/Taiwanese | publisher = | location = | isbn = 978-986-7101-47-1 }}) | language = Mandarin/Taiwanese/English | publisher = | location = | isbn = 957-11-3822-3 }}) | language = Mandarin/Min Nan/English | publisher = | location = | isbn = 957-15-0948-5 }}(Original from the University of Michigan)(Original from the New York Public Library) == External links == {{InterWiki|code=zh-min-nan}} * [http://www.amoymagic.com/amoywhy.htm {Why it is Called Amoy}], Why Minnan is called "Amoy" * [http://203.64.42.21/iug/ungian/SoannTeng/chil/taihoa.asp {{lang|zh-tw|台語-華語線頂辭典}}], Amoy-Mandarin on-line dictionary * [http://nlg.csie.ntu.edu.tw/systems/TWLLMT/index.html {{lang|zh-tw|臺灣本土語言互譯及語音合成系統}}], Amoy-Hakka-Mandarin on-line conversion * [http://gb.cri.cn/chinese_radio/minnan.htm listen to the news in Amoy Min Nan] (site is in Chinese script) * [http://homepage2.nifty.com/Gat_Tin/fangyin.htm Database of Pronunciations of Chinese Dialects] (in English, Chinese and Japanese) * [http://www.glossika.com/en/dict/index.php Glossika - Chinese Languages and Dialects] * [http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/spacecraft/languages/amoy.html Voyager - Spacecraft - Golden Record - Greetings From Earth - Amoy], includes translation and sound clip *: (The voyager clip says: {{unicode|Thài-khong pêng-iú, lín-hó. Lín chia̍h-pá—bē? Ū-êng, to̍h lâi gún chia chē—ô·!}} {{lang|zh-tw|太空朋友，恁好。恁食飽未？有閒著來阮遮坐哦!}}) {{Southern Min Languages}} {{Chinese language}} {{Xiamen}}