Biscay is a province of the Basque Country in Spain.It is generally accepted that Bizkaia, the original Basque term, is a correlate of bizkar Biscay is a province of the Basque Country in Spain.It is generally accepted that Bizkaia, the original Basque term, is a correlate of bizkar Biscay ' onMouseout='HidePop("34580")' href="http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Chthonic">chthonic
Chthonic designates, or pertains to, deities or spirits of the underworld, especially in relation to Greek religion.Greek khthon is one of several words for "earth"; it typically refers to the interior of the soil, rather...
forces in the same way that the
serpentSerpent is a word of Latin origin that is commonly used in a specifically mythic or religious context, signifying a snake that is to be regarded not as a mundane natural phenomenon nor as an object of scientific zoology, but as the bearer of some potent symbolic value.-Cross-cultural symbolic...
does. Wasson proposed this was due to its being a shamanic and also
tabooA taboo is a strong social prohibition relating to any area of human activity or social custom that is sacred and forbidden. Breaking the taboo is usually considered objectionable or abhorrent by society. The term comes from the Tongan language, and appears in many Polynesian cultures...
object and hence unable to be named specifically in ancient Celtic culture. He speculates that the power of this taboo may have perpetuated its maligned reputation while other lethal fungi such as the death cap (
A. phalloides) have had few cultural connotations throughout European history. In addition, a common name from China is
ha-ma chün, meaning "toad mushroom" (蛤蟆菌), although the toad does not carry a negative connotation in Chinese culture and symbolism. An unusual derivation is the Japanese
beni-tengu-take "long-nosed goblin-mushroom".
Classification
Amanita muscaria is the
type speciesIn taxonomy, a type species is a technical phrase, involved in the application of formal names...
of the genus
Amanita. By extension, it is also the type species of
Amanita subgenusIn biology, a subgenus is a taxonomic rank directly below genus. See rank and rank .In zoology, a subgeneric name can be used independently or included in a species name, in parentheses, placed between the generic and specific name: e.g...
Amanita, as well as section
Amanita within this subgenus.
Amanita subgenus
Amanita includes all
Amanita with inamyloid spores.
Amanita sectionIn botany, a section is a low-level taxonomic rank directly below subgenus. See rank and rank . It is typically used to help organize very large genera, which may have hundreds of species....
Amanita includes those species with patchy
universal veilIn mycology, a universal veil is a structure that envelops all or most of some gilled mushrooms. The young, developing button mushroom, which may resemble a puffball at this point, is protected by this egg-like structure...
remnants, including a volva that is reduced to a series of concentric rings and the veil remnants on the
capThe pileus is the technical name for what is commonly known as the cap of a fungal fruiting body. It is particularly characteristic of agarics, boletes, and some polypores, tooth fungi, and ascocarps. Other sporocarp types have less clear differentiation between the pileus and the rest of the...
being a series of patches or warts. Most species in this group also have a bulbous base.
Amanita section
Amanita consists of
A. muscaria and its close relatives, including
A. pantherina (the panther cap),
A. gemmataThe gemmed mushroom is a mushroom of the genus Amanita, a genus of fungi including some of the most deadly mushrooms, as well as notably psychedelic mushrooms. A. gemmata resembles the false death cap, tawny grisette and panther cap mushrooms...
,
A. farinosaAmanita farinosa is a North American poisonous mushroom of the genus Amanita, a genus of fungi including some of the most deadly mushrooms, as well as notably psychedelic mushrooms.-Description:...
, and
A. xanthocephalaThe vermilion grisette, also known as pretty grisette or vermilion Amanita is a colourful mushroom of the genus Amanita. However, although it is often referred to by the common name "grisette", it is not closely related to other edible species that carry this common name, such as Amanita vaginata...
. Modern fungal taxonomists have classified
Amanita muscaria and its allies this way based on gross
morphologyIn biology morphology is the form, structure and configuration of an organism.This includes aspects of the outward appearance as well as the form and structure of the internal parts like bones and organs...
and spore inamyloidy. Two recent molecular phylogenetic studies have confirmed this classification as natural.
Amanita muscaria varies considerably in its morphology and many authorities recognize a number of subspecies or varieties within the species. In
The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy, German mycologist
Rolf SingerRolf Singer was a German-born mycologist and one of the most important taxonomists of gilled mushrooms in the 20th century....
listed three subspecies, though without description:
A. muscaria ssp.
muscaria,
A. muscaria ssp.
americana, and
A. muscaria ssp.
flavivolvata.
Contemporary authorities recognize up to seven varieties:
- var. muscaria, the typical red-and-white spotted variety. Some authorities, such as Rodham Tulloss, only use this name for Eurasian and western Alaskan populations.
- var. flavivolvata is red, with yellow to yellowish-white warts, and occurs in the western regions of the North American continent, from southern Alaska down through the Rocky Mountains
The Rocky Mountains are a major mountain range in western North America. The Rocky Mountains stretch more than from the northernmost part of British Columbia, in Canada, to New Mexico, in the United States. The range's highest peak is Mount Elbert in Colorado at above sea level...
, through Central AmericaManagua
Guatemala City
San Salvador
San Pedro Sula
Panama City
San José, Costa Rica
Santa Ana, El Salvador
León
San Miguel|-|}...
, to at least Andean ColombiaColombia , officially the Republic of Colombia , is a constitutional republic in northwestern South America. Colombia is bordered to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; to the north by the Caribbean Sea; to the northwest by Panama; and to the west by the Pacific Ocean...
. Rodham Tulloss uses this name to describe all "typical" A. muscaria from indigenous New World populations from Alaska southward.
- var. alba, an uncommon fungus, has a white to silvery white cap with white warts but otherwise similar to the usual form.
- var. formosa, has a yellow to orange-yellow cap with yellowish or tan warts and stem. Some authorities use this name for all A. muscaria fitting this description worldwide (cf. Jenkins), others (cf. Tulloss) restrict its use to Eurasian populations.
- var. guessowii
Amanita muscaria var. guessowii, commonly known as the American Eastern Yellow Fly Agaric is a basidiomycete fungus of the genus Amanita.-Cap:...
is yellow to orange, with center of cap more orange or reddish orange than the outer part. It is found throughout North America, but is most common in northeastern North America, from NewfoundlandNewfoundland and Labrador is a province of Canada on the country's Atlantic coast in northeastern North America. This easternmost Canadian province comprises two main parts: the island of Newfoundland off the country's eastern coast, and Labrador on the mainland to the northwest of the island.A...
and QuebecQuebec is a province in east-central Canada. It is the only Canadian province with a predominantly French-speaking identity and the only one whose sole official language is French at the provincial level....
down to TennesseeTennessee is a state located in the Southeastern United States. According to the 2008 census, it has a population of 6,214,888, an increase of nearly 9.5% since 2000. Tennessee is the 14th fastest growing state in the US and is ranked 17th by population. It is ranked 36th by total land area. In...
. Some authorities (cf, Jenkins) treat these populations as part of A. muscaria var. formosa, while others (cf, Tulloss) recognize it as a distinct variety.
- var. persicina is pinkish to orangish "melon" colored with poorly formed or absent remnants of universal veil on the stem and vasal bulb, known from the Southeastern Coastal areas of the U.S.A, described in 1977.
- var. regalis from Scandinavia
Scandinavia is a geographical region in northern Europe that includes, and is named after, the Scanian Province. It consists of the kingdoms of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark...
and AlaskaAlaska is the largest state of the United States of America by area; it is situated in the northwest extremity of the North American continent, with Canada to the east, the Arctic Ocean to the north, and the Pacific Ocean to the west and south, with Russia further west across the Bering Strait...
, is liver-brown and has yellow warts. It appears to be uniformly distinctive and some authorities (cf, Tulloss) treat it as a separate species, while others (cf, Jenkins) treat it as a variety of A. muscaria.
A 2006 molecular phylogenetic study of different regional populations of
A. muscaria by mycologist József Geml and colleagues found three distinct clades within this species representing, roughly, Eurasian, Eurasian "subalpine", and North American populations. Specimens belonging to all three clades have been found in Alaska; this has led to the hypothesis that this was the center of diversification of this species. The study also looked at four named varieties of this species: var.
alba, var.
flavivolvata, var.
formosa (including var.
guessowii), and var.
regalis from both areas. All four varieties were found within both the Eurasian and North American clades, evidence that these morphological forms are simply
polymorphismsPolymorphism in biology occurs when two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species — in other words, the occurrence of more than one form or morph...
found throughout the species rather than distinct subspecies or varieties. Further molecular study by Geml and colleagues published in 2008 show these three genetic groups, plus a fourth associated with oak–hickory–pine forest in the southeastern United States, and two more on Santa Cruz Island in California, are delineated from each other enough genetically to be considered separate species; thus
A. muscaria as it stands currently is a
species complexIn biology, a cryptic species complex is a group of species which satisfy the biological definition of species, that is, they are reproductively isolated from each other, but their morphology is very similar ....
. The complex also includes at least three other closely related taxa currently regarded as species:
A. breckonii is a buff-capped mushroom associated with conifers from the Pacific Northwest, and the brown-capped
A. gioiosa and
A. heterochroma from the mediterranean and Sardinia alone respectively. Both these last two are found with
EucalyptusEucalyptus is a diverse genus of flowering trees in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae. Members of the genus dominate the tree flora of Australia. There are more than 700 species of Eucalyptus, mostly native to Australia, and a very small number are found in adjacent parts of New Guinea and Indonesia...
and
CistusCistus is a genus of flowering plants in the rockrose family Cistaceae, containing about 20 species . They are perennial shrubs found on dry or rocky soils throughout the Mediterranean region, from Morocco and Portugal through to the Middle East, and also on the Canary Islands...
trees and it is unclear whether they are native or have been introduced from Australia.
Description
A large conspicuous
mushroomA mushroom is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or on its food source. The standard for the name "mushroom" is the cultivated white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus, hence the word mushroom is most often applied to those fungi that have...
,
Amanita muscaria is generally common and numerous where it grows, and is often found in groups with
basidiocarpA basidiocarp, basidiome or basidioma , is the sporocarp of a basidiomycete, the multi-cellular structure on which the spore-producing hymenium is borne. Basidiocarps are characteristic of the hymenomycetes; rusts and smuts do not produce such structures...
s in all stages of development.
Fly agaric fruiting bodies emerge from the soil looking like a white egg, covered in the white warty material of the universal veil. Dissecting the mushroom at this stage will reveal a characteristic yellowish layer of skin under the veil which assists in identification. As the fungus grows, the red color appears through the broken veil and the warts become less prominent; they do not change in size but are reduced relative to the expanding skin area. The cap changes from globose to hemispherical, and finally to plate-like and flat in mature specimens. Fully grown, the bright red
capThe pileus is the technical name for what is commonly known as the cap of a fungal fruiting body. It is particularly characteristic of agarics, boletes, and some polypores, tooth fungi, and ascocarps. Other sporocarp types have less clear differentiation between the pileus and the rest of the...
is usually around 8–20 cm (3–8 in) in diameter, although larger specimens have been found. The red color may fade after rain and in older mushrooms. After emerging from the ground, the cap is covered with numerous small white to yellow pyramid-shaped warts. These are remnants of the
universal veilIn mycology, a universal veil is a structure that envelops all or most of some gilled mushrooms. The young, developing button mushroom, which may resemble a puffball at this point, is protected by this egg-like structure...
, a membrane that encloses the entire mushroom when it is still very young. The free gills are white, as is the
spore printthumb|300px|right|Making a spore print of the mushroom Volvariella volvacea shown in composite: mushroom cap laid on white and dark paper; cap removed after 24 hours showing pinkish-tan spore print...
. The oval spores measure 9–13 by 6.5–9
μmA micrometre or micron is one millionth of a metre,or equivalently one thousandth of a millimetre....
, and are
non-amyloidIn mycology the term amyloid refers to a crude chemical test using iodine in either Melzer's reagent or Lugol's solution, to produce a black to blue-black positive reaction. It is called amyloid because starch gives a similar reaction, and that reaction for starch is also called an amyloid reaction...
, that is, they do not turn blue with the application of
iodineMelzer's reagent is a chemical reagent used by mycologists to assist with the identification of fungi.-Composition:...
. The
stipethumb|150px|right|Diagram of a [[basidiomycete]] stipe with a [[annulus |annulus]] and [[volva |volva]]In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. Like all tissues of the mushroom other than the hymenium, the stipe is composed of sterile hyphal...
is white, 5–20 cm high (2–8 in) by 1–2 cm (0.4–0.8 in) wide, and has the slightly brittle, fibrous texture typical of many large mushrooms. At the base is a
bulbThe volva is a mycological term to describe a cup-like structure at the base of a mushroom which is a remnant of the Universal veil. This macrofeature is very important in wild mushroom identification due to it being an easily observed, taxonomically significant feature which almost always...
that bears universal veil remnants in the form of two to four distinct rings or ruffs. Between the basal universal veil remnants and gills are remnants of the
partial veilPartial veil is a mycological term which describes a structure of some mushrooms which protects the developing gills or other spore-producing surface. A partial veil, in contrast to a universal veil, is attached to the stipe and edge of the pileus...
(which covers the gills during development) in the form of a white
ringAn annulus is the ring like structure sometimes found on the stipe of a mushroom. The annulus represents the remaining part of the partial veil, after it has ruptured to expose the gills or other spore-producing surface. An annulus may be thick and membranous, or it may be cobweb-like. The latter...
. It can be quite wide and flaccid with age. There is generally no associated smell other than a mild earthiness.
Although very distinctive in appearance, the fly agaric has been mistaken for other yellow to red species in the Americas, including
Armillaria cf.
mellea and the edible
Amanita basii—a Mexican species similar to
A. caesareaAmanita caesarea, commonly known in English as Caesar's Mushroom, is a highly regarded edible mushroom in the genus Amanita, native to southern Europe and North Africa. It has a distinctive orange cap, yellow gills and stem. Similar orange-capped species occur in North America and India...
of Europe. Poison control centers in the U.S. and Canada are aware that
amarill is a common name for
A. caesarea-like species in Mexico, not just the Spanish for 'yellow'.
Amanita caesarea can be distinguished as it has an entire orange red cap, lacking the numerous white warty spots of the fly agaric. Furthermore the stem, gills and ring are bright yellow, not white. Finally the volva is a distinct white bag, not broken into scales. In Australia, the introduced fly agaric may be confused with the native vermilion grisette (
Amanita xanthocephalaThe vermilion grisette, also known as pretty grisette or vermilion Amanita is a colourful mushroom of the genus Amanita. However, although it is often referred to by the common name "grisette", it is not closely related to other edible species that carry this common name, such as Amanita vaginata...
), which grows in association with eucalypts. The latter species generally lacks the white warts of
A. muscaria and bears no ring.
Distribution and habitat
A. muscaria is a
cosmopolitanIn biogeography, cosmopolitan distribution is a state of being found almost anywhere around the world. A cosmopolitan biological category, e.g. genus, may be called a cosmopolite.Examples of cosmopolitan species:* Humans* House dust mite...
mushroom, native to conifer and deciduous woodlands throughout the
temperateIn geography, temperate or tepid latitudes of the globe lie between the tropics and the polar circles. The changes in these regions between summer and winter are generally mild, rather than extreme hot or cold. But in continental areas, such as central North America the variations between summer...
and
boreal'Boreal' is usually applied to ecosystems localized to subarctic and subantarctic zones, although Austral is also used for the latter. A "boreal forest," also known as the taiga, is the set of forest ecosystems that can survive in northern, specifically subarctic, regions...
regions of the Northern Hemisphere, including high elevations of warmer latitudes in regions like the
Hindu KushThe Hindu Kush is a mountain range stretching between and north-western Pakistan and eastern and central Afghanistan. The highest point in the Hindu Kush is Tirich Mir in the Chitral region of the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan.It is the westernmost extension of the Pamir Mountains, the...
, the Mediterranean and Central America. A recent molecular study proposes an ancestral origin in the
SiberiaSiberia , is the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving as the massive central and eastern portion of the Russian Federation, having served in the same capacity previously for the USSR from its beginning, and the Russian Empire beginning in the...
n–Beringian region in the
TertiaryThe Tertiary is a term for a geologic period 65 million to 2.588 million years ago. The Tertiary covered the time span between the superseded Secondary period and the Quaternary...
period before radiating outwards across Asia, Europe and North America. Though generally encountered in autumn, the season can vary in different climates: fruiting occurs in summer and autumn across most of North America, but later in autumn and early winter on the
Pacific coastA country's Pacific coast is the part of its coast facing the Pacific Ocean.-The Americas:Countries on the western side of the Americas have a Pacific coast as their western border.* Geography of Guatemala* Geography of El Salvador...
. It is often found in similar locations to
Boletus edulisBoletus edulis is a mushroom in the basidiomycete phyla. It is edible and often referred to in English as porcini and by other common names in different regions....
, and may appear in
fairy ringA fairy ring, also known as fairy circle, elf circle or pixie ring, is a naturally occurring ring or arc of mushrooms. The rings may grow over ten meters in diameter and become stable over time as the fungus grows and seeks food underground. They are found mainly in forested areas, but also appear...
s. Conveyed with pine seedlings, it has been widely transported into the southern hemisphere, including Australia,
New ZealandNew Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses , and numerous smaller islands, most notably Stewart Island/Rakiura and the Chatham Islands. The indigenous Māori named New Zealand Aotearoa, commonly translated as The Land of the Long White Cloud...
, South Africa and South America.
EctomycorrhizalA mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association between a fungus and the roots of a plant. In a mycorrhizal association, the fungus may colonize the roots of a host plant, either intracellularly or extracellularly...
,
Amanita muscaria forms symbiotic relationships with a wide variety of trees, including
pinePines are coniferous trees in the genus Pinus , in the family Pinaceae. They make up the monotypic subfamily Pinoideae. There are about 115 species of pine, although different authorities accept between 105 and 125 species.-Distribution:...
,
spruceA spruce is a tree of the genus Picea , a genus of about 35 species of coniferous evergreen trees in the Family Pinaceae, found in the northern temperate and boreal regions of the earth. Spruces are large trees, from 20–60 m tall when mature, and can be distinguished by their whorled branches and...
,
firFirs are a genus of between 48-55 species of evergreen conifers in the family Pinaceae. All are trees, reaching heights of 10-80 m tall and trunk diameters of 0.5-4 m when mature...
,
birchBirch is the name of any tree of the genus Betula , in the family Betulaceae, closely related to the beech/oak family, Fagaceae.-Description:...
, and
cedarCedar is a genus of coniferous trees in the plant family Pinaceae. They are most closely related to the Firs , and share a very similar cone structure...
. Commonly seen under introduced trees,
A. muscaria is the fungal equivalent of a
weedA weed in a general sense is a plant that is considered by the user of the term to be a nuisance, and normally applied to unwanted plants in human-made settings such as gardens, lawns or agricultural areas, but also in parks, woods and other natural areas. More specifically, the term is often...
in
New ZealandNew Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses , and numerous smaller islands, most notably Stewart Island/Rakiura and the Chatham Islands. The indigenous Māori named New Zealand Aotearoa, commonly translated as The Land of the Long White Cloud...
,
TasmaniaTasmania is an Australian island and state. It is located south of the eastern side of the continent, from which it is separated by Bass Strait. The state includes the island of Tasmania – the 26th largest island in the world – and the surrounding islands. The state has a population of 500,000 ,...
and
VictoriaVictoria is the second most populous state in Australia. Geographically smallest mainland state, Victoria is bordered by New South Wales to the north, South Australia to the west, and Tasmania to the south, across the Bass Strait. Victoria is the most densely populated state, with over 70% of...
, forming new associations with southern beech (
NothofagusNothofagus, also known as the southern beeches, is a genus of about 35 species of trees and shrubs native to the temperate oceanic to tropical Southern Hemisphere in southern South America and Australasia...
). It is also invading native rainforest in Australia, where it may be displacing native species. Furthermore, it appears to be spreading northwards, with recent reports placing it near
Port MacquariePort Macquarie is a large town on the mid-North Coast of New South Wales, Australia, located about 390 km north of Sydney, and 570 km south of Brisbane. The town is located on the coast, at the mouth of the Hastings River...
on the
New South WalesNew South Wales is Australia's most populous state, located in the south-east of the country, north of Victoria, south of Queensland and east of South Australia...
north coast. Although it has not spread to eucalypts in Australia, it has been recorded associating with them in Portugal.
Toxicity
Amanita muscaria poisoning typically occurs in either young children or people ingesting it for a hallucinogenic experience. Occasionally, immature button forms have been mistaken for edible
puffballA puffball is a member of any of a number of groups of fungus in the division Basidiomycota. The puffballs were previously treated as a taxonomic group called the Gasteromycetes or Gasteromycetidae, but they are now known to be a polyphyletic assemblage...
s. Additionally, the white spots may be washed away during heavy rain and it can then appear similar to the edible
A. caesareaAmanita caesarea, commonly known in English as Caesar's Mushroom, is a highly regarded edible mushroom in the genus Amanita, native to southern Europe and North Africa. It has a distinctive orange cap, yellow gills and stem. Similar orange-capped species occur in North America and India...
.
Amanita muscaria contains a number of biologically active agents, at least two of which,
muscimolMuscimol is the major psychoactive alkaloid present in many mushrooms of the Amanita genus. Unlike psilocybin, a tryptamine, muscimol is a potent, selective agonist of the GABA
A receptor.-Chemistry:...
and
ibotenic acidIbotenic acid is a chemical compound that is naturally occurring in the mushrooms Amanita muscaria and Amanita pantherina, among others...
, are known to be psychoactive. A toxic dose in adults is approximately 6 mg muscimol or 30 to 60 mg ibotenic acid, this is typically about the amount found in one cap of
Amanita muscaria. However, the amount and ratio of chemical compounds per mushroom varies widely from region to region and season to season, which further confuses the issue. Spring and summer mushrooms have been reported to contain up to 10 times as much ibotenic acid and muscimol compared to autumn fruitings.
A fatal dose has been calculated at approximately 15 caps. Deaths from
A. muscaria have been reported in historical journal articles and newspaper reports; however, with modern medical treatment a fatal outcome would be extremely rare. Many older books mistakenly list it as deadly, giving the impression that it is far more toxic than it really is. The North American Mycological Association has stated there are no reliably documented fatalities in the past 100 years. The vast majority (90% or more) of
mushroom poisoningMushroom poisoning, also known as mycetism, refers to deleterious effects from ingestion of toxic substances present in a mushroom. These symptoms can vary from slight gastrointestinal discomfort to death. The toxins present are secondary metabolites produced in specific biochemical pathways in the...
deaths are from having eaten either the greenish to yellowish death cap (
A. phalloides) or one of the several white
Amanita species known as
destroying angelThe name destroying angel applies to several similar, closely related species of deadly all-white mushrooms in the genus Amanita. They are Amanita bisporigera and A. ocreata in eastern and western North America, and A. virosa in Europe. Another very similar species, A. verna or fool's mushroom was...
s.
The active constituents of this species are water soluble, and boiling and then discarding the cooking water will at least partly detoxify
A. muscaria. However, drying may increase potency as the process facilitates the conversion of ibotenic acid to the more potent muscimol. According to some sources, once detoxified, the mushroom becomes edible.
Pharmacology
MuscarineMuscarine, L--muscarine, or muscarin is a natural product found in certain mushrooms, particularly in Inocybe and Clitocybe species, such as the deadly C. dealbata. It was first isolated from Amanita muscaria in 1869...
, discovered in 1869, was long thought to be the active hallucinogenic agent in
A. muscaria. Muscarine binds with
muscarinic acetylcholine receptorMuscarinic receptors, or mAChRs, are G protein-coupled acetylcholine receptors found in the plasma membranes of certain neurons and other cells...
s leading to the excitation of neurons bearing these receptors. The levels in
Amanita muscaria, however, are minute when compared with other poisonous fungi, such as
Inocybe erubescens or small white
ClitocybeHundreds of species of mushrooms compose the fungus genus Clitocybe. They are characterized by white, off-white, buff, cream, pink, or light-yellow spores, gills running down the stem, and pale white to brown or lilac coloration...
species
C. dealbataClitocybe dealbata, also known as the ivory funnel, is a small white funnel-shaped toadstool widely found in lawns, meadows and other grassy areas in Europe and North America. Also known as the sweating mushroom, it derives this name from the symptoms of poisoning...
and
C. rivulosaClitocybe rivulosa, commonly known as the false champignon or fool's funnel, is a poisonous basidiomycete fungus of the large genus Clitocybe. One of several species similar in appearance, it is a small white funnel-shaped toadstool widely found in lawns, meadows and other grassy areas in Europe...
, and are too insignificant to play a role in the symptoms of poisoning.
The major toxins involved in poisoning are
muscimolMuscimol is the major psychoactive alkaloid present in many mushrooms of the Amanita genus. Unlike psilocybin, a tryptamine, muscimol is a potent, selective agonist of the GABA
A receptor.-Chemistry:...
(3-hydroxy-5-aminomethyl-1-isoxazole, an
unsaturatedIn organic chemistry, an unsaturated compound is a chemical compound that contains carbon-carbon double bonds or triple bonds such as in alkenes or alkynes. In a saturated compound these double bonds are removed by the addition of hydrogen and no multiple bonds are present...
cyclic
hydroxamic acidA hydroxamic acid is a class of chemical compounds sharing the same functional group in which an hydroxylamine is inserted into a carboxylic acid. Its general structure is R-CO-NH-OH, with an R as an organic residue, a CO as a carbonyl group, and a hydroxylamine as NH2-OH...
) and
ibotenic acidIbotenic acid is a chemical compound that is naturally occurring in the mushrooms Amanita muscaria and Amanita pantherina, among others...
. Muscimol is the product of the
decarboxylationDecarboxylation is any chemical reaction in which a carboxyl group is split off from a compound as carbon dioxide .- Common examples :Common biosynthetic decarboxylations of amino acids to amines are:* tryptophan to tryptamine...
(usually by drying) of ibotenic acid. Muscimol and ibotenic acid were discovered in the mid 20th century. Researchers in England, Japan, and Switzerland showed that the effects produced were due mainly to ibotenic acid and muscimol, not muscarine. They are not distributed uniformly in the mushroom. Most are detected in the cap of the fruit, than in the base,with the smallest amount in the stalk.(Lampe, 1978; Tsunoda et al., 1993) A substantial fraction of ingested ibotenic acid is excreted in the urine unmetabolized quite rapidly, between 20 and 90 minutes after ingestion.. Virtually no muscimol is excreted when pure ibotenic acid is eaten, but muscimol is detectable in the urine after eating
A. muscaria, which contains both ibotenic acid and muscimol.
Ibotenic acid and muscimol are structurally related to each other and to two major
neurotransmitterNeurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals which relay, amplify, and modulate signals between a neuron and another cell. Neurotransmitters are packaged into synaptic vesicles that cluster beneath the membrane on the presynaptic side of a synapse, and are released into the synaptic cleft, where they...
s of the central nervous system:
glutamic acidGlutamic acid is one of the 20 proteinogenic amino acids, and its codons are GAA and GAG. It is a non-essential amino acid...
and
GABAGabâ or gabaa, for the Cebuano people , is the concept of a non-human and non-divine, imminent retribution. A sort of negative karma, it is generally seen as an evil effect on a person because of their wrongdoings or transgressions...
respectively. Ibotenic acid and muscimol act like these neurotransmitters, muscimol being a potent
GABAAThe GABA
A receptor is an ionotropic receptor and ligand-gated ion channel. Its endogenous ligand is γ-aminobutyric acid , the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. Upon activation, the GABA
A receptor selectively conducts Cl- through its pore,...
agonistAn agonist is a drug that binds to a receptor of a cell and triggers a response by the cell. An agonist often mimics the action of a naturally occurring substance.An agonist produces an action...
, while ibotenic acid is an agonist of
NMDA glutamate receptorsThe NMDA receptor , a glutamate receptor, is the predominant molecular device for controlling synaptic plasticity and memory function....
and certain
metabotropic glutamate receptorThe metabotropic glutamate receptors, or mGluRs, are a type of glutamate receptor which are active through an indirect metabotropic process. They are members of the group C family of G-protein-coupled receptors, or GPCRs...
s which are involved in the control of neuronal activity. It is these interactions which are thought to cause the psychoactive effects found in intoxication. Muscimol is the agent responsible for the majority of the psychoactivity.
MuscazoneMuscazone is a toxic psychoactive chemical compound. It is an amino acid found in European fly agaric mushrooms.
...
is another compound more recently isolated from European specimens of the fly agaric. It is a product of the breakdown of ibotenic acid by ultra-violet radiation. Muscazone is of minor
pharmacological activityPharmacological or biological activity is an expression describing the beneficial or adverse effects of a drug on living matter. When the drug is a complex chemical mixture, this activity is exerted by the substance's active ingredient or pharmacophore but can be modified by the other constituents....
compared with the other agents.
Amanita muscaria and related species are known as effective
bioaccumulatorsBioaccumulation refers to the accumulation of substances, such as pesticides, or other organic chemicals in an organism. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a toxic substance at a rate greater than that at which the substance is lost...
of
vanadiumVanadium is the chemical element with the symbol V and atomic number 23. It is a soft, silvery grey, ductile transition metal. The formation of an oxide layer stabilizes the metal against oxidation. Andrés Manuel del Río discovered vanadium in 1801 by analyzing the mineral vanadinite, and named it...
; some species concentrate vanadium to levels of up to 400 times those typically found in plants. Vanadium is present in fruit-bodies as an organometallic compound called amavadine. However, the biological importance of the accumulation process is unknown.
Symptoms
Fly agarics are known for the unpredictability of their effects. Depending on habitat and the amount ingested per body weight, effects can range from
nauseaNausea is the sensation of unease and discomfort in the stomach with an urge to vomit.-Causes:...
and twitching to drowsiness,
cholinergic crisisA cholinergic crisis is an over-stimulation at a neuromuscular junction due to an excess of acetylcholine , as of a result of the inactivity of the AChE enzyme, which normally breaks down acetylcholine. This is a consequence of some types of nerve gas,...
-like effects (low
blood pressureBlood pressure is the pressure exerted by circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels, and is one of the principal vital signs. During each heartbeat, BP varies between a maximum and a minimum pressure...
,
sweatSWEAT is an OLN/TSN show hosted by Julie Zwillich that aired in 2003-2004.Each of the 13 half-hour episodes of SWEAT features a different outdoor sport: kayaking, mountain biking, ice hockey, beach volleyball, soccer, windsurfing, rowing, Ultimate, triathlon, wakeboarding, snowboarding, telemark...
ing and
salivaSaliva is the watery and usually frothy substance produced in the mouths of humans and most other animals. Saliva is produced in and secreted from the salivary glands...
tion), auditory and visual distortions, mood changes,
euphoriaEuphoria is medically recognized as a mental/emotional state defined as a sense of great elation and wellbeing. Technically, euphoria is an affect, but the term is often colloquially used to define emotion as an intense state of transcendent happiness combined with an overwhelming sense of wellbeing...
, relaxation,
ataxiaAtaxia is a neurological sign and symptom consisting of gross lack of coordination of muscle movements. Ataxia is a non-specific clinical manifestation implying dysfunction of parts of the nervous system that coordinate movement, such as the cerebellum...
, and
loss of equilibriumVertigo is a specific type of dizziness, a major symptom of a balance disorder. It is the sensation of spinning or swaying while the body is actually stationary with respect to the surroundings.The effects of vertigo may be slight...
.
In cases of serious poisoning it causes a
deliriumDelirium is an acute and debilitating decline in attention-focus, perception, and cognition that produces an altered form of semi-consciousness. It is a systemic syndrome caused by a chemical or disease-process which is disrupting the neurons of the cerebral cortex...
, similar in effect to
anticholinergicAn anticholinergic agent is a substance that blocks the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the central and the peripheral nervous system. An example of an anticholinergic is dicyclomine....
poisoning it is characterized by bouts of marked
agitationPsychomotor agitation is a series of unintentional and purposeless motions that stem from mental tension and anxiety of an individual. This includes pacing around a room, wringing one's hands, pulling off clothing and putting it back on and other similar actions...
with confusion, hallucinations, and irritability followed by periods of
central nervous systemThe central nervous system is the part of the nervous system that functions to coordinate the activity of all parts of the bodies of bilaterian animals—that is, all animals more advanced than sponges or jellyfish. In vertebrates, the central nervous system is enclosed in the meninges. It contains...
depression. Seizures and
comaIn medicine, a coma is a profound state of unconsciousness. A comatose person cannot be awakened, fails to respond normally to pain or light, does not have sleep-wake cycles, and does not take voluntary actions....
may also occur in severe poisonings. Symptoms typically appear after around 30 to 90 minutes and peak within three hours, but certain effects can last for a number of days. In the majority of cases recovery is complete within 12 to 24 hours. The effect is highly variable between individuals with similar doses potentially causing quite different reactions. Some cases of intoxication have exhibited headaches up to ten hours afterwards. Retrograde
amnesiaAmnesia is a memory condition in which memory is disturbed. In simple terms it is the loss of memory. The causes of amnesia are organic or functional. Organic causes include damage to the brain, through trauma or disease, or use of certain drugs. Functional causes are psychological factors, such...
and
somnolenceSomnolence is a state of near-sleep, a strong desire for sleep, or sleeping for unusually long periods . It has two distinct meanings, referring both to the usual state preceding falling asleep, and the chronic condition referring to being in that state independent of a circadian rhythm...
frequently results following recovery.
Treatment
Medical attention should be sought in cases of suspected poisoning. Initial treatment consists of gastric decontamination. If the delay between ingestion and treatment is less than four hours, activated charcoal is given.
Gastric lavageGastric lavage, also commonly called stomach pumping or Gastric irrigation, is the process of cleaning out the contents of the stomach. It has been used for over 200 years as a means of eliminating poisons from the stomach. Such devices are normally used on a person who has ingested a poison or...
can be considered if the patient presents within 1 hour of ingestion. Inducing vomiting with
syrup of ipecacSyrup of ipecac commonly referred to as simply Ipecac is derived from the dried rhizome and roots of the ipecacuanha plant and is a well known emetic .- Mechanism of action :...
is no longer recommended in any poisoning situations.
There is no antidote, and supportive care is the mainstay of further treatment for intoxication. Patients can develop symptoms similar to
anticholinergicAn anticholinergic agent is a substance that blocks the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the central and the peripheral nervous system. An example of an anticholinergic is dicyclomine....
or
cholinergicA cholinergic crisis is an over-stimulation at a neuromuscular junction due to an excess of acetylcholine , as of a result of the inactivity of the AChE enzyme, which normally breaks down acetylcholine. This is a consequence of some types of nerve gas,...
poisoning; however, the use of
atropineAtropine is a tropane alkaloid extracted from deadly nightshade , jimsonweed , mandrake and other plants of the family Solanaceae. It is a secondary metabolite of these plants and serves as a drug with a wide variety of effects. It is a competitive antagonist for the muscarinic acetylcholine...
or
physostigminePhysostigmine is a parasympathomimetic, specifically, a reversible cholinesterase inhibitor alkaloid of the Calabar bean....
as an antidote is not recommended as muscimol and ibotenic acid do not produce a true anticholinergic syndrome nor do they have activity at muscarinic receptors. If a patient is
deliriousDelirium is an acute and debilitating decline in attention-focus, perception, and cognition that produces an altered form of semi-consciousness. It is a systemic syndrome caused by a chemical or disease-process which is disrupting the neurons of the cerebral cortex...
or agitated, this can usually be treated by reassurance and, if necessary, physical restraints. Additionally,
benzodiazepineA benzodiazepine is a psychoactive drug whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring and a diazepine ring...
such as
diazepamDiazepam , first marketed as Valium by Hoffmann-La Roche, is a benzodiazepine derivative drug. It possesses anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, hypnotic, sedative, skeletal muscle relaxant, and amnestic properties. It is commonly used for treating anxiety, insomnia, seizures, muscle spasms, restless legs...
or
lorazepamLorazepam, initially marketed under the brand names Ativan and Temesta, is a benzodiazepine drug with short to medium duration of action. It has all five intrinsic benzodiazepine effects: anxiolytic, amnesic, sedative/hypnotic, anticonvulsant and muscle relaxant...
can be used to control combativeness, agitation, muscular overactivity, and seizures. However, small doses of benzodiazepines should be used as they may worsen the respiratory depressant effects of muscimol. Recurrent vomiting is rare but if present may lead to fluid and electrolyte imbalances; intravenous rehydration or electrolyte replacement may be required. Serious cases may develop loss of
consciousnessConsciousness is subjective experience or awareness or wakefulness or the executive control system of the mind. It is an umbrella term that may refer to a variety of mental phenomena...
or
comaIn medicine, a coma is a profound state of unconsciousness. A comatose person cannot be awakened, fails to respond normally to pain or light, does not have sleep-wake cycles, and does not take voluntary actions....
, and may necessitate
intubationIn medicine, intubation refers to the placement of a tube into an external or internal orifice of the body. Although the term can refer to endoscopic procedures, it is most often used to denote tracheal intubation. Tracheal intubation is the placement of a flexible plastic tube into the trachea to...
and artificial ventilation.
HemodialysisIn medicine, hemodialysis is a method for removing waste products such as potassium and urea, as well as free water from the blood when the kidneys are in renal failure. Hemodialysis is one of three renal replacement therapies .Hemodialysis can be an outpatient or inpatient therapy...
can remove the toxins, although this intervention is generally considered unnecessary. With modern medical treatment the prognosis is typically good following supportive treatment.
Psychoactive use
Unlike the
psychedelicThe term psychedelic is derived from the Greek words ψυχή and δηλείν , translating to "mind-manifesting". A psychedelic experience is characterized by the perception of aspects of one's mind previously unknown, or by the creative exuberance of the mind liberated from its ostensibly ordinary fetters...
mushrooms of the
PsilocybePsilocybe is a genus of small mushrooms growing worldwide. This genus is best known for its species with psychedelic or hallucinogenic properties, widely known as "magic mushrooms", though the majority of species do not contain hallucinogenic compounds...
,
Amanita muscaria has been rarely consumed recreationally. However, following the outlawing of
psilocybinPsilocybin is a hallucinogenic indole of the tryptamine family, found in psilocybin mushrooms. It is present in hundreds of species of fungi, including those of the genus Psilocybe, such as Psilocybe cubensis and Psilocybe semilanceata, but also reportedly isolated from a dozen or so other genera...
-containing mushrooms in the United Kingdom, an increased quantity of legal
A. muscaria mushrooms began to be sold and consumed.
Siberia
A. muscaria was widely used as an
entheogenAn entheogen , in the strict sense, is a psychoactive substance used in a religious, shamanic or spiritual context. Historically, entheogens were mostly derived from plant sources and have been used in a variety of traditional religious contexts...
by many of the indigenous peoples of Siberia. Its use was known among almost all of the Uralic-speaking peoples of western Siberia and the Paleosiberian-speaking peoples of the
Russian Far EastRussian Far East is a term that refers to the Russian part of the Far East, i.e., extreme east parts of Russia, between Siberia and the Pacific Ocean...
. However, there are only isolated reports of
A. muscaria use among the
TungusicTungusic peoples are the peoples who speak Tungusic languages that belong to the Altaic languages. The word originated in Tunguska, an ill-defined region of Siberia.-Peoples:Tungusic peoples are:*Evenks*Evens...
and
Turkic peoplesThe Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern, central and western Eurasia. They speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family. They share, to varying degrees, certain cultural traits and historical backgrounds...
of central Siberia and it is believed that entheogenic use of
A. muscaria was largely not a practice of these peoples. In western Siberia, the use of
A. muscaria was restricted to shamans, who used it as an alternate method of achieving a trance state. (Normally, Siberian shamans achieve a trance state by prolonged drumming and dancing.) In eastern Siberia,
A. muscaria was used by both shamans and laypeople alike, and was used recreationally as well as religiously. In eastern Siberia, the
shamanShamanism comprises a range of traditional beliefs and practices concerned with communication with the spirit world. It is a prominent term in anthropological research. A practitioner of shamanism is known as a shaman, , noun...
would consume the mushrooms, and others would drink his urine. This urine, still containing psychoactive elements may actually be more potent than the
A. muscaria mushrooms with fewer negative effects, such as sweating and twitching, suggesting that the initial user may act as a screening filter for other components in the mushroom.
The
KoryakKoryaks are an indigenous people of Kamchatka Krai in the Russian Far East, who inhabit the coastlands of the Bering Sea to the south of the Anadyr basin and the country to the immediate north of the Kamchatka Peninsula, the southernmost limit of their range being Tigilsk. They are akin to the...
of eastern Siberia have a story about the fly agaric (
wapaq) which enabled Big Raven to carry a whale to its home. In the story, the deity
Vahiyinin ("Existence") spat onto earth, and his spittle became the
wapaq, and his saliva becomes the warts. After experiencing the power of the
wapaq, Raven was so exhilarated that he told it to grow forever on earth so his children, the people, can learn from it. Among the Koryak, one report held the poor would consume the urine of the wealthy, who could afford to buy the mushrooms.
Other reports of entheogenic use
Beyond Siberia, there are only isolated and unconfirmed reports of the entheogenic use of
A. muscaria. The Finnish historian
T. I. ItkonenToivo Immanuel Itkonen was a Finnish historian and linguist, specializing in Sami language and the history of the Sami people.-References:* , Anaras – The Inari Sami, Siida website....
mentions that it was once used among the
Sami peopleThe Sami people, also spelled Sámi, or Saami, are one of the indigenous people of northern Europe inhabiting Sápmi, which today encompasses parts of northern Sweden, Norway, Finland and the Kola Peninsula of Russia but also in the border area between south and middle Sweden...
, sorcerers in
InariInari is a municipality in Finland. The municipality was established in 1876. The largest villages of the municipality are Ivalo and Inari....
would consume fly agarics with seven spots. In 1979, Said Gholam Mochtar and
Hartmut GeerkenHartmut Geerken is a German musician, composer, writer, journalist, playwright, and filmmaker.-Life:...
published an article in which they claim to have discovered a tradition of medicinal and recreational use of this mushroom among a Parachi-speaking group in
AfghanistanThe Islamic Republic of Afghanistan is a landlocked country in south central Asia. It is variously described as being located within Central Asia, South Asia, or the Middle East...
. There are also unconfirmed reports of religious use of
A. muscaria among two Subarctic
Native AmericanThe indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian inhabitants of the Americas, their descendants, and many ethnic groups who identify with those peoples...
tribes.
OjibwaThe Ojibwe or Chippewa is the largest group of Native Americans-First Nations north of Mexico, including Métis. They are the third-largest in the United States, surpassed only by Cherokee and Navajo. They're equally divided between the United States and Canada...
ethnobotanist
Keewaydinoquay PeschelKeewaydinoquay Pakawakuk Peschel was a scholar, ethnobotanist, herbalist, medicine woman, teacher and author. She was an Anishinaabeg Elder of the Crane Clan...
reported its use among her people, where it was known as the
miskwedo. This information was enthusiastically received by Wasson, although evidence from other sources was lacking. There is also one account of a Euro-American who claims to have been initiated into traditional Tlicho use of
Amanita muscaria.
Soma
In 1968, R. Gordon Wasson proposed that
A. muscaria was the
SomaSoma , or Haoma , from Proto-Indo-Iranian *sauma-, was a ritual drink of importance among the early Indo-Iranians, and the later Vedic and greater Persian cultures. It is frequently mentioned in the Rigveda, whose Soma Mandala contains many hymns praising its energizing qualities...
talked about in the Rig Veda of
IndiaIndia, officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal...
, which received widespread publicity and popular support at the time. He noted that descriptions of
Soma omitted description of roots, stems or seeds, which suggested a mushroom, and used the adjective
hári "dazzling" or "flaming" which the author interprets as red. One line described men urinating
Soma; this recalled the practice of recycling urine in Siberia. Soma is mentioned as coming "from the mountains", which Wasson interpreted as being brought with the Aryan invaders from the north. However, Indian scholars Santosh Kumar Dash and Sachinanda Padhy noted that both the eating of mushrooms and drinking of urine were proscribed, using as a source the
Manusmṛti.
In 1971, Vedic scholar John Brough from Cambridge University rejected Wasson's theory; he noted the language was too vague to determine a description of Soma.
Vikings
A single source for the notion that
VikingA Viking is one of the Norse explorers, warriors, merchants, and pirates who raided and colonized wide areas of Europe from the late eighth to the early eleventh century. These Norsemen used their famed longships to travel as far east as Constantinople and the Volga River in Russia, and as far...
s used
A. muscaria to produce their
berserkerBerserkers were Norse warriors who are reported in the Old Norse literature to have fought in a nearly uncontrollable, trance-like fury, a characteristic which later gave rise to the English word berserk...
rages was first suggested by the Swedish professor Samuel Ödman in 1784. Ödman based his theories on reports about the use of fly agaric among Siberian shamans. The notion has become widespread since the 19th century, but no contemporary sources mention this use or anything similar in their description of berserkers.
Today, it is generally considered an urban legend or at best speculation that cannot be proven. Muscimol is generally a mild relaxant, but could create a range of reactions within a range of people. It is possible that it could make a person incredibly angry, as well as make them "very jolly or sad, jump about, dance, sing or give way to great fright".
Christianity
Biblical scholar
John Marco AllegroJohn Marco Allegro was a scholar who challenged orthodox views of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Bible and the history of religion, with books that attracted popular attention and scholarly derision....
controversially proposed that the Roman Theology was derived from a sex and psychedelic mushroom cult in his 1970 book
The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross, although his theory has found little support by scholars outside the field of
ethnomycologyEthnomycology is the study of the historical uses and sociological impact of fungi , and can be considered a subfield of ethnobotany or ethnobiology...
. The book was roundly discredited by academics and theologians, including
Sir Godfrey DriverGodfrey Rolles Driver was an English Orientalist noted for his studies of Semitic languages and Assyriology....
, Emeritus Professor of Semitic Philology at Oxford University, and
Henry ChadwickHenry Chadwick KBE was a British academic and Church of England clergyman. A former Dean of Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford — and as such also head of Christ Church, Oxford — he also served as Master of Peterhouse, Cambridge, becoming the first person in four centuries to have headed a college at...
, the Dean of Christ Church College, Oxford. Christian author John C. King wrote a detailed rebuttal of Allegro's theory in the 1970 book
A Christian View of the Mushroom Myth; he notes neither fly agarics nor their host trees are found in the middle east, and highlights the tenuous nature of the links between biblical and Sumerian names coined by Allegro. He concludes that if the theory was true, the use of the mushroom must have been "the best kept secret in the world" as it was so well concealed for all this time.
In
Magic Mushrooms in Religion and Alchemy (formerly called
Strange Fruit) Clark Heinrich interprets
A. muscaria usage by
Adam and EveAdam and Eve were, according to the Book of Genesis of the Bible, the first man and woman created by God...
,
MosesMoses was, according to biblical texts, a religious leader, lawgiver, and prophet, to whom the authorship of the Torah is traditionally attributed. Also called Moshe Rabbeinu in Hebrew Moses was, according to biblical texts, a...
, Elijah and
ElishaElisha is a prophet of the Hebrew bible. To many Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodox he is known as Saint Eliseus; however, the standard English form of the name has been "Elisha," at least since the introduction of the Authorized King James Version...
,
IsaiahIsaiah is the main figure in the Biblical Book of Isaiah, and is traditionally considered to be its author. He was an 8th-century BC Judean prophet. Part of his message was: "The land will be completely laid waste and totally plundered. The LORD has spoken this word."...
,
EzekielAccording to religious texts, Ezekiel was a priest in the Bible who prophesied for 22 years sometime in the 6th century BC in the form of visions while exiled in Babylon, as recorded in...
,
JonahJonah is the name given in the Hebrew Bible to a prophet of the northern kingdom of Israel in about the 8th century BC, the central character in the Book of Jonah famous for being swallowed by a fish...
,
JesusJesus of Nazareth —also known as Jesus Christ or occasionally Jesus the Christ—is the central figure of Christianity. Within most Christian denominations...
and his disciples, and
John of PatmosJohn of Patmos is the name given to the author of the Book of Revelation in the New Testament. According to the text of Revelation, the author, who gives his name as "John," is living on the Greek island of Patmos. Many believe John was in exile. In Revelation, he writes to the seven Christian...
. In the book
Apples of Apollo the mushroom is identified in a wide range of mythological tales such as those involving
PerseusPerseus , the legendary founder of Mycenae and of the Perseid dynasty there, was the first of the mythic heroes of Greek mythology whose exploits in defeating various archaic monsters provided the founding myths in the cult of the Twelve Olympians...
,
PrometheusIn Greek mythology, Prometheus is a Titan, the son of Iapetus and Themis, and brother to Atlas, Epimetheus and Menoetius. He was a champion of human-kind known for his wily intelligence, who stole fire from Zeus and gave it to mortals...
,
HeraclesIn Greek mythology, Heracles or Herakles , Alcides or Alcaeus , was a divine hero, the son of Zeus and Alcmene, foster son of Amphitryon and great-grandson of Perseus...
, Jason and the Argonauts, Jesus and the
Holy GrailAccording to Christian mythology, the Holy Grail was the dish, plate, or cup used by Jesus at the Last Supper, said to possess miraculous powers...
.
Culinary use
The toxins in
A. muscaria are water soluble. When sliced thinly, or chopped into thin dice and boiled in plentiful water until thoroughly cooked, it seems to be detoxified. Although its consumption as a food has never been widespread, the consumption of detoxified
A. muscaria has been practiced in some localities in Europe (notably by Russian settlers in Siberia) since at least the 19th century, and likely earlier. The German physician and naturalist Georg Heinrich von Langsdorff wrote the earliest published account on how to detoxify this mushroom in 1823. In the late 19th Century, the French physician
Félix Archimède PouchetFélix-Archimède Pouchet was a French naturalist and a leading proponent of spontaneous generation of life from from non-living materials, and as such an opponent of Louis Pasteur’s germ theory...
was a popularizer and advocate of
A. muscaria consumption, comparing it to manioc, an important food source in tropical South America that nevertheless must be detoxified before consumption.
Use of this mushroom as a food source also seems to have existed in North America as well. A classic description of this use of
A. muscaria by an African-American mushroom seller in Washington D.C. in the late nineteenth century is described by American botanist
Frederick Vernon CovilleFrederick Vernon Coville was an American botanist who careered in the United States Department of Agriculture , where he became Chief Botanist, and was the first director of the United States National Arboretum...
. In this case, the mushroom, after parboiling, and soaking in vinegar is made into a mushroom sauce for steak. It is also consumed as a food in parts of Japan. The most well-known current use as an edible mushroom is in
Nagano Prefectureis a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūbu region of the island of Honshū. The capital is the city of Nagano.- History :Nagano was formerly known as the province of Shinano, and was divided among many local daimyo during the Sengoku period....
, Japan. There, it is primarily salted and pickled.
A 2008 paper by mycologist
David AroraDavid Arora is an American mycologist, naturalist, and writer. He is the author of two popular mushroom field guides, Mushrooms Demystified and All That the Rain Promises and More.......
and food historian William Rubel gives a history of consumption of
A. muscaria as a food and describes detoxification methods. They advocate that
Amanita muscaria be described in field guides as an edible mushroom, though accompanied by a description on how to detoxify it. The authors state that the widespread descriptions in field guides of this mushroom as poisonous is a reflection of
cultural biasCultural bias is a bias effected by one's culture. The alleged problem of cultural bias is sometimes considered central to social and human sciences, such as economics, psychology, anthropology and sociology. To counter perceived cultural bias, some practitioners of the aforementioned fields have...
, as several other popular edible species, notably morels, are toxic unless properly cooked.
Cultural depictions
The red-and-white spotted toadstool is a common image in many aspects of popular culture, especially in children's books, film, garden ornaments, greeting cards, and more recently computer games. Garden ornaments, and children's picture books depicting
gnomeA gnome is a fictional humanoid creature characterized by its extremely small size and subterranean lifestyle. The word gnome is derived from the New Latin gnomus...
s and fairies, such as the Smurfs, very often show fly agarics used as seats, or homes. Fly agarics have been featured in paintings since the
RenaissanceThe Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned roughly the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Florence in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe...
, albeit in a subtle manner. In the
Victorian eraThe Victorian era of the United Kingdom was the period of Queen Victoria's reign from June 1837 until her death on the 22nd of January 1901. The reign was a long period of prosperity for the British people, as profits gained from the overseas British Empire, as well as from industrial improvements...
they became more visible, even becoming the main topic of some
fairy paintingFairy painting is a genre of painting and illustration featuring fairies and fairy tale settings, often with extreme attention to detail. The genre is most closely associated with the Victorian era in Great Britain, but has experienced a contemporary revival...
s. Two of the most famous uses of the mushroom are in the video game series
Super Mario Bros., and the dancing mushroom sequence in the 1940 Disney film
FantasiaFantasia is a American animated feature produced by Walt Disney and the third film in the Walt Disney Animated Classics series. Fantasia features animation set to classical music and no dialogue—only spoken introductions by the host, American composer and music critic Deems Taylor, before segments...
.
Literature
The journeys of
Philip von StrahlenbergPhilip Johan von Strahlenberg was a Swedish officer and geographer of German origin who made important contributions to the cartography of Russia. Strahlenberg was born in Stralsund, which then belonged to Sweden, and his original name was Philip Johan Tabbert. He joined the Swedish army in 1694...
to Siberia and his descriptions of the use of the
mukhomor there was published in English in 1736. The drinking of urine of those who had imbibed the mushroom was commented on by Anglo-Irish writer
Oliver GoldsmithOliver Goldsmith was an Anglo-Irish writer, poet, and physician known for his novel The Vicar of Wakefield , his pastoral poem The Deserted Village , and his plays The Good-Natur'd Man and She Stoops to Conquer...
in his widely read 1762 novel
Citizen of the World. The mushroom had been identified as the fly agaric by this time. Other authors recorded the distortions of the size of perceived objects while intoxicated by the fungus, including naturalist
Mordecai Cubitt CookeMordecai Cubitt Cooke was an English botanist and mycologist.Cooke came from a mercantile family in Horning, Norfolk, and worked as an apprentice to a fabric merchant before becoming a clerk in a law firm, but his chief interest was in botany. He founded the Society of Amateur Botanists in 1862...
in his books
The Seven Sisters of Sleep and
A Plain and Easy Account of British Fungi. This observation is thought to have formed the basis of the effects of eating the mushroom in the 1865 popular story
Alice's Adventures in WonderlandAlice's Adventures in Wonderland is a novel written by English author Charles Lutwidge Dodgson under the pseudonym Lewis Carroll. It tells the story of a girl named Alice who falls down a rabbit hole into a fantasy world populated by peculiar and anthropomorphic creatures. The tale is filled with...
. A hallucinogenic "scarlet toadstool" from Lappland is also featured as a plot element in
Charles KingsleyCharles Kingsley was an English clergyman, university professor, historian, and novelist, particularly associated with the West Country and north-east Hampshire.-Life and character:...
's 1866 novel
Hereward the Wake based on the
medieval figureHereward the Wake , known in his own times as Hereward the Outlaw or Hereward the Exile, was an 11th-century Anglo-Saxon leader involved in resistance to the Norman conquest of England...
of the same name; fly agaric shamanism is explored more recently in the 2003 novel
ThursbitchThursbitch is a novel by English writer Alan Garner, named after the valley in the Pennines of England where the action occurs...
by
Alan GarnerAlan Garner OBE is an English writer whose work is firmly rooted in Cheshire.-Biography:Alan Garner spent his early childhood in Alderley Edge, Cheshire, England, and he remains associated with the area...
.
Christmas decorations and Santa Claus
Fly agarics appear on Christmas cards and
New YearThe New Year is an event that happens when a culture celebrates the end of one year and the beginning of the next year. Cultures that measure yearly calendars all have New Year celebrations...
cards from around the world as a symbol of good
luckLuck is a belief in good or bad fortune in life caused by accident or chancewhich happens beyond a person's control.Luck is significant in everyday life,as well as Morality, Epistemology, Business and other endeavors....
. The ethnobotanist
Jonathan OttJonathan Ott is an ethnobotanist, writer, translator, publisher, natural products chemist and botanical researcher in the area of entheogens and their cultural and historical uses, and helped coin the term "entheogen".-Writings:...
has suggested that the idea of
Santa ClausSanta Claus is a folklore figure in various cultures who distributes gifts to children, normally on Christmas Eve. Each name is a variation of Saint Nicholas, but refers to Santa Claus...
and tradition of hanging stockings over the fireplace is based centrally upon the fly agaric mushroom itself. With its generally red and white color scheme, he argues that Santa Claus's suit is related to the mushroom. He also draws parallels with flying reindeer: reindeer had been reported to consume the mushroom and prance around in an intoxicated manner afterwards. American ethnopharmacologist Scott Hajicek-Dobberstein, researching possible links between religious myths and the red mushroom, notes, "If Santa Claus had but one eye [like
OdinOdin , is considered the chief god in Norse paganism and the ruler of Asgard. Homologous with the Anglo-Saxon Wōden and the Old High German Wotan, it is descended from Proto-Germanic *Wōđinaz or *Wōđanaz.The name Odin is generally accepted as the modern translation; although, in some cases, older...
], or if magic urine had been a part of his legend, his connection to the
Amanita muscaria would be much easier to believe."
The connection was reported to a much wider audience with an article in the
magazineThe Sunday Times Magazine is a supplement to The Sunday Times newspaper. It was launched in 1962 and redesigned in November 2008.-References:...
of
The Sunday TimesThe Sunday Times is a British Sunday newspaper.The Sunday Times may also refer to:*The Sunday Times *The Sunday Times *The Sunday Times *The Sunday Times...
in 1980, and
New ScientistNew Scientist is a weekly international science magazine and website covering recent developments in science and technology for a general English-speaking audience. Founded in 1956, it is published by Reed Business Information Ltd, a subsidiary of Reed Elsevier. New Scientist has maintained a...
in 1986. Historian Ronald Hutton has since ruled out the connection; he noted reindeer spirits did not appear in Siberian mythology, shamans did not travel by sleigh, nor did they wear red and white, or climb out of smoke holes in
yurtA yurt is a portable, felt-covered, wood lattice-framed dwelling structure traditionally used by nomads in the steppes of Central Asia.-Etymology and synonyms:...
roofs. Finally, American awareness of Siberian shamanism postdated the appearance of much of the folklore around Santa.
External links
- Extensive and detailed webpages on Amanita species by Tulloss & Yang Zhuliang