See Also

Alexander I of Russia

Aleksander I Pavlovich , was Emperor Tsar

Tsar , occasionally spelled Czar or Tzar and sometimes Csar or Zar in English [i] ... 

 of Russia Russia

Russia , also the Russian Federation , is a country [i] that stretches over a vast expanse of Eurasia [i] ... 

 from March 23, 1801–December 1, 1825 and King of Poland List of Polish monarchs

Until 1795 [i], Poland [i] or at least its nucleus was ruled at various times either by ksiaze, "dukes" or by ... 

 from 1815–1825, as well as the first Grand Duke of Finland. He was born in Saint Petersburg Saint Petersburg

Saint Petersburg listen is a city located in northwestern Russia [i] on t ... 

 to Grand Duke Paul Petrovich, later Emperor Paul I Paul I of Russia

Paul I of Russia was the Emperor of Russia [i] between 1796 [i] and 1801 [i]. ... 

, and Maria Fedorovna, daughter of the Duke of Wrttemberg. Alexander succeeded to the throne after his father was murdered, and ruled Russia during the chaotic period of the Napoleonic Wars Napoleonic Wars

The Napoleonic Wars, a series of global [i] conflicts [i] fought during Napoleon Bonaparte [i] ... 

.

Discussions

  Discussion Features

   Ask a question about 'Alexander I of Russia'

   Start a new discussion about 'Alexander I of Russia'

   Answer questions about 'Alexander I of Russia'

   'Alexander I of Russia' discussion forum

Timeline

1777   Born

1801   The Russia Russia

Russia , also the Russian Federation , is a country [i] that stretches over a vast expanse of Eurasia [i] ... 

n Tsar Tsar

Tsar , occasionally spelled Czar or Tzar and sometimes Csar or Zar in English [i] ... 

 Paul I Paul I of Russia

Paul I of Russia was the Emperor of Russia [i] between 1796 [i] and 1801 [i]. ... 

 is murdered. He is succeeded by his son Alexander I of Russia.

1808   Swedish Sweden

The Kingdom of Sweden is a Nordic country [i] in Scandinavia [i]. ... 

 troops evacuate Finland Finland

The Republic of Finland , is one of the Nordic countries [i]. ... 

. Tsar Tsar

Tsar , occasionally spelled Czar or Tzar and sometimes Csar or Zar in English [i] ... 

 Alexander I of Russia proclaims Finland Finland

The Republic of Finland , is one of the Nordic countries [i]. ... 

 a part of Russia Russia

Russia , also the Russian Federation , is a country [i] that stretches over a vast expanse of Eurasia [i] ... 

.

1809   At the Diet of Porvoo Diet of Porvoo

[i], the new [[Grand Duke of Finland]... 

, Finland Finland

The Republic of Finland , is one of the Nordic countries [i]. ... 

's four Estates Riksdag of the Estates

The Riksdag of the Estates, or Stndsriksdagen, was the name used for the Estates of the Swedish realm [i] ... 

 pledge allegiance to Alexander I of Russia, commencing the secession of the Grand Duchy of Finland Grand Duchy of Finland

The Grand Duchy of Finland was the predecessor state [i] of modern Finland [i] that existed in her terri ... 

 from Sweden Lands of Sweden

Sweden [i] is divided into the three lands: Gtaland [i], Svealand [i], Norrland [i]. ... 

. King Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden

Gustav IV Adolf, was King of Sweden [i] from 1792 [i] until his abdication in 1809 [i]. ... 

 abdicates after a coup d'état Coup d'état

A coup d'tat , or simply coup, is the sudden overthrow of a government [i] through unconstitutiona ... 

 and is later exiled.

1825   Nicholas I of Russia Nicholas I of Russia

Nicholas I , July 6 [i] , 1796 [i]–March 2 [i] , 1855 [i]), was the Emperor [i] of Russia [i] fro ... 

 succeeds his older brother Alexander I Alexander I of Russia

Aleksander I Pavlovich , was Emperor [i] of Russia [i] from March 23 [i], 1801 [i]–December 1 [i] ... 

.

1825   Died



Encyclopedia

Aleksander I Pavlovich , was Emperor Tsar

Tsar , occasionally spelled Czar or Tzar and sometimes Csar or Zar in English [i] ... 

 of Russia Russia

Russia , also the Russian Federation , is a country [i] that stretches over a vast expanse of Eurasia [i] ... 

 from March 23, 1801–December 1, 1825 and King of Poland List of Polish monarchs

Until 1795 [i], Poland [i] or at least its nucleus was ruled at various times either by ksiaze, "dukes" or by ... 

 from 1815–1825, as well as the first Grand Duke of Finland.

He was born in Saint Petersburg Saint Petersburg

Saint Petersburg listen is a city located in northwestern Russia [i] on t ... 

 to Grand Duke Paul Petrovich, later Emperor Paul I Paul I of Russia

Paul I of Russia was the Emperor of Russia [i] between 1796 [i] and 1801 [i]. ... 

, and Maria Fedorovna, daughter of the Duke of Württemberg. Alexander succeeded to the throne after his father was murdered, and ruled Russia during the chaotic period of the Napoleonic Wars Napoleonic Wars

The Napoleonic Wars, a series of global [i] conflicts [i] fought during Napoleon Bonaparte [i]... 

. In the first half of his ruling Alexander tried to introduce liberal reforms whilst in the second half he turned to a much more arbitrary manner of conduct, which led to the abolishing of many early reforms. In foreign policy Alexander gained certain success, having won several campaigns. In particular under his rule Russia acquired Finland and part of Poland. The strange contradictions of his character make Alexander one of the most interesting Tsars.

Early life

Soon after his birth he was taken from his father Paul I of Russia

Paul I of Russia was the Emperor of Russia [i] between 1796 [i] and 1801 [i]. ... 

 by his grandmother Catherine the Great Catherine II of Russia

Catherine II of Russia, called the Great , born Sophie Augusta Frederike of Anhalt-Zerbst) so... 

, who utterly disliked Paul and did not want him to have any influence on the future emperor. Some sources allege that she created the plan to remove Paul from succession and proclaim Alexander as the one instead. Both sides tried to use him for their own purposes and he was torn emotionally between his grandmother and his father, the heir to the throne. This taught Alexander, very early on, how to manipulate those who loved him and he became a natural chameleon, changing his views and personality depending on whom he was with at the time. Reared in the free-thinking atmosphere of the court of Catherine Catherine II of Russia

Catherine II of Russia, called the Great , born Sophie Augusta Frederike of Anhalt-Zerbst) so... 

, he had imbibed from his Swiss Switzerland

Switzerland , officially the Swiss Confederation, is a landlocked [i] Alpine country [i] in Central Europe [i] ... 

 tutor, Frederic Caesar de Laharpe, the principles of Rousseau's Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a Geneva [i]-born philosopher [i] of the Enlightenment [i]... 

 gospel of humanity; from his military governor, Nikolay Saltykov, the traditions of Russian autocracy. Young Alexander sympathised with French French Revolution

The French Revolution was a pivotal period in the history of French, Europe [i]an and Western [i] ... 

 and Polish Kosciuszko Uprising

The Kosciuszko [i] Uprising took place in Poland [i] in 1794 [i]. ... 

 revolutionaries. However, his father seems to have taught him to combine a theoretical love of mankind with a practical contempt for men. These contradictory tendencies remained with him through life, and this can be seen through his fluctuations in policy, both domestic and military.

In 1793 he married Louise of Baden Louise of Baden

Empress Elisabeth Alexeievna of Russia, born Louise Marie Auguste, Princess of Baden of the House ... 

, who was only 14 years old at the time. Meanwhile the death of Catherine the Great Catherine II of Russia

Catherine II of Russia, called the Great , born Sophie Augusta Frederike of Anhalt-Zerbst) so... 

 in November 1796 brought his father, Paul I Paul I of Russia

Paul I of Russia was the Emperor of Russia [i] between 1796 [i] and 1801 [i]. ... 

 to the throne. His attempts at reforms were conducted in a hostile environment where many of his closest advisors, and his own son, were against his proposed changes. The Tsar was murdered in March 1801.

Succession to the throne

Alexander I succeeded to the throne on March 23, 1801, and was crowned in the Kremlin Kremlin

Kremlin is the Russian [i] word for "fortress", "citadel", or "castle" and refers to a ... 

 on September 15 of that year. Historians still debate about Alexander’s role in this murder. The most common opinion is that he was in favor of taking the throne but insisted that his father Paul I of Russia

Paul I of Russia was the Emperor of Russia [i] between 1796 [i] and 1801 [i]. ... 

 would not be killed. At first, indeed, this exercised little influence on the Emperor's Tsar

Tsar , occasionally spelled Czar or Tzar and sometimes Csar or Zar in English [i] ... 

 life. The young Tsar was determined to reform the outdated, centralised systems of government that Russia relied upon. While retaining for a time the old ministers who had served and overthrown the Emperor Paul, one of the first acts of his reign was to appoint the Private Committee, also called ironically the "Comite du salut public", comprising young and enthusiastic friends of his own - Victor Kochubey, Nikolay Novosiltsev, Pavel Stroganov and Adam Jerzy Czartoryski Adam Jerzy Czartoryski

Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski, in English: Adam George Czartoryski, Polish [i] szlachcic [i] ... 

 - to draw up a scheme of internal reform, which was supposed to result in an establishing of constitutional monarchy Constitutional monarchy

A constitutional monarchy is a form of monarchical [i] government [i] established under a constitution [i] ... 

. Alexander intended to draw a constitution Constitution

A constitution is a system, often codified [i] as a written document, which establishes the rules and pr... 

 and grant political liberties in accordance with teachings of the Age of Enlightenment Age of Enlightenment

The Age of Enlightenment refers to either the eighteenth century [i] in European philosophy [i] ... 

. Also Alexander wanted to resolve another crucial issue in Russia - the future of the serfs Serfdom

Serfdom refers to the legal and economic status of some peasant [i]s under feudalism [i], specifically i ... 

. The regime looked into the possibilities of emancipating Abolitionism

Abolitionism was a political movement that sought to abolish the practice of slavery [i] and the worldwi ... 

 the serfs, although this was not achieved until 1861. In the very beginning of Alexander's rule several notable steps were made, including establishing freedom for publishing house Publishing

[i] or [[information]... 

s, the winding down of activities in the intelligence services and prohibition of torture Torture

Torture is any act by which severe pain, whether physical or psychological [i], is intentiona... 

. Several years later the liberal Mikhail Speransky Mikhail Speransky

Count Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky was probably the greatest of Russia [i]n reformers in the period be... 

 became one of the Tsar's closest advisors, and drew up many plans for elaborate reforms. Their aims, inspired by their admiration for English Kingdom of Great Britain

Kingdom of Great Britain
... 

 institutions, far outstripped the possibilities of the time, and even after they had been raised to regular ministerial positions little of their programme could come to pass. Russia Russian Empire

The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was declared a republic in August 1917.
... 

 was not ready for a more liberal Liberalism

Liberalism is an ideology [i], philosophical view [i], and political tradition which holds that liberty [i] ... 

 society; and Alexander, the disciple of the progressive teacher Laharpe, was—as he himself said—but "a happy accident" on the throne of the tsars. He spoke, indeed, bitterly of "the state of barbarism in which the country had been left by the traffic in men”.

Legal reform

The codification of the laws initiated in 1801 was never carried out during his reign; nothing was done to improve the intolerable status of the Russian peasantry; the constitution drawn up by Mikhail Speransky Mikhail Speransky

Count Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky was probably the greatest of Russia [i]n reformers in the period be... 

, and passed by the emperor, remained unsigned. Finally elaborate intrigues against Speransky initiated by his political rivals led to the loss of support of Alexander and subsequent removal in March 1812. Alexander, in fact, who, without being consciously tyrannical, possessed in full measure the tyrant Tyrant

[i] or in an [[organization]... 

's characteristic distrust of men of ability and independent judgment, lacked also the first requisite for a reforming sovereign: confidence in his people; and it was this want that vitiated such reforms as were actually realized. He experimented in the outlying provinces of his Empire Empire

What exactly constitutes an Empire is a topic of intense debate within the scholarly community.... 

; and the Russians noted with open murmurs that, not content with governing through foreign instruments, he was conferring on Poland Poland

Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country located in Central Europe [i]. ... 

, Finland Finland

The Republic of Finland , is one of the Nordic countries [i]. ... 

 and the Baltic provinces Baltic States

Sorry, no overview for this topic 

 benefits denied to themselves.

Social reforms

Main articles: Government reform of Alexander I Government reform of Alexander I

The early Russia [i]n system of government instituted by Peter the Great [i], which consiste ... 

 and Mikhail Speransky Mikhail Speransky

Count Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky was probably the greatest of Russia [i]n reformers in the period be... 



In Russia, too, certain reforms were carried out, but they could not survive the suspicious interference of the autocrat and his officials. The newly created Council of Ministers and State Council under Governing Senate, endowed for the first time with certain theoretical powers, became in the end but the slavish instruments of the Tsar and his favorites of the moment. The elaborate system of education, culminating in the reconstituted, or new-founded, universities University

[i], which grants [[academic degree]... 

 of Dorpat Tartu

Tartu is the second largest city of Estonia [i], with a population of 101,297 and an area of 38.8 km. ... 

, Vilna Vilnius

Vilnius is the capital [i] and largest city [i] of Lithuania [i], with a population of 553,904 as of December 2005 [i] ... 

, Kazan Kazan

Kazan is the capital city of the Republic of Tatarstan [i], Russia [i], and one of Russia's la ... 

 and Kharkov Kharkiv


Kharkiv is the second largest city in Ukraine [i]. ... 

, was strangled in the supposed interests of "order" and of Russian Orthodox Church Russian Orthodox Church

The Russian Orthodox Church , also known as the Orthodox Catholic Church of Russia, is that body of ... 

; while the military settlements which Alexander proclaimed as a blessing to both soldiers and state were forced on the unwilling peasantry and army with pitiless cruelty. Though they were supposed to improve living conditions of soldiers, the economic effect in fact was poor and harsh military discipline caused frequent unrest. Even the Bible Society, through which the Emperor in his later mood of evangelical Evangelism

Evangelism is the proclaiming of the Christian [i] Gospel [i] or, by extension, any other f ... 

 zeal proposed to bless his people, was conducted on the same ruthless lines. The Roman Roman Catholic Church

The Roman Catholic Church or Catholic Church is the Christian [i] Church [i] ... 

 Archbishop Archbishop

In Christianity [i], an archbishop is an elevated bishop [i]. ... 

 and the Orthodox Metropolitans were forced to serve on its committee side by side with Protestant pastors; and village priest Priest

A priest or priestess is a person having the authority, or power , to perform and administer relig... 

s, trained to regard any tampering with the letter of the traditional documents of the Church as mortal sin, became the unwilling instruments for the propagation of what they regarded as works of the Devil Devil

The Devil is the name given to a supernatural [i] entity, who, in most Abrahamic [i] faiths, is the cent ... 

.

Influence on European politics


Views held by his contemporaries

Autocrat and "Jacobin", man of the world and mystic, he appeared to his contemporaries as a riddle which each read according to his own temperament. Napoleon I Napoleon I of France

Napoleon I Bonaparte, Emperor of the French, King of Italy, Mediator of the Swiss Confederation and Prot... 

 thought him a "shifty Byzantine", and called him the Talma of the North, as ready to play any conspicuous part. To Metternich Klemens Wenzel von Metternich

Klemens Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar Frst [i] von Metternich-Winneberg-Beilstein was an Austrian [i] politician [i] ... 

 he was a madman to be humoured. Castlereagh Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh

Robert Stewart, 2nd Marquess of Londonderry, KG [i], GCH [i], PC [i] ... 

, writing of him to Lord Liverpool, gives him credit for "grand qualities", but adds that he is "suspicious and undecided".
Alexander's grandiose imagination was, however, more strongly attracted by the great questions of European politics than by attempts at domestic reform which, on the whole, wounded his pride by proving to him the narrow limits of absolute power.

Alliances with other powers

Upon his accession, Alexander reversed the policy of his father, Paul, denounced the League of Neutrals, and made peace with the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland

| align="center" colspan="2"| United Kingdom ofGreat Britain and Ireland
... 

 . At the same time he opened negotiations with Francis II Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor

Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor also referred to as Franz I, Emperor of Austria was the last Holy Roman [i] ... 

 of the Holy Roman Empire. Soon afterwards at Memel Klaipeda

Klaipeda is a Lithuania [i]n city situated at the mouth of the Curonian Lagoon [i] to the Baltic Sea [i]... 

 he entered into a close alliance with Prussia Kingdom of Prussia

The Kingdom of Prussia was a kingdom [i] from 1701 to 1918 and, from 1871, was the leading state of the ... 

, not as he boasted from motives of policy, but in the spirit of true chivalry Chivalry

Chivalry refers to the medieval [i] institution of knighthood [i] and, most especially, the ideals that... 

, out of friendship Friendship

Friendship is a term used to denote co-operative and supportive behaviour between two or more social ent... 

 for the young King List of rulers of Brandenburg and Prussia

This is a list of the rulers of the Margravate of Brandenburg [i], of the Kingdom of Prussia [i], which develo ... 

 Frederick William III Frederick William III of Prussia

Frederick William III was king of Prussia [i] from 1797 [i] to 1840 [i]. ... 

 and his beautiful wife Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

Louise Auguste Wilhelmine Amalie, Queen [i] of Prussia [i], was born in Hanover [i], where her f ... 

. The development of this alliance was interrupted by the short-lived peace of October 1801; and for a while it seemed as though France French Consulate

The Consulate was the government of France [i] from 1799 [i] to 1804 [i]—from the fall of the Directory [i] ... 

 and Russia Russian Empire

The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was declared a republic in August 1917.
... 

 might come to an understanding. Carried away by the enthusiasm of Laharpe, who had returned to Russia Russia

Russia , also the Russian Federation , is a country [i] that stretches over a vast expanse of Eurasia [i] ... 

 from Paris Paris

native_name = Ville de Paris
|common_name = Paris
... 

, Alexander began openly to proclaim his admiration for French institutions and for the person of Napoléon Bonaparte Napoleon I of France

Napoleon I Bonaparte, Emperor of the French, King of Italy, Mediator of the Swiss Confederation and Prot... 

 . Soon, however, came a change. Laharpe, after a new visit to Paris, presented to the Tsar his Reflections on the True Nature of the Consulship for Life, which, as Alexander said, tore the veil from his eyes, and revealed Bonaparte "as not a true patriot Patriotism

Patriotism denotes positive and supportive attitudes to a 'fatherland' , by individuals and groups.... 

", but only as "the most famous tyrant the world has produced." His disillusionment was completed by the murder of the duc d'Enghien Louis-Antoine-Henri de Bourbon-Condé, duc d'Enghien

Louis-Antoine-Henri de Bourbon-Cond, duc d'Enghien was a relative of the Bourbon monarchs [i] ... 

. The Russian court went into mourning for the last of the Condés Prince of Condé

Prince of Cond is a historical French title, originally assumed in the mid-sixteenth century by the Fren... 

, and diplomatic relations with Paris were broken off.

Opposition to Napoleon

The events of the Napoleonic Wars Napoleonic Wars

The Napoleonic Wars, a series of global [i] conflicts [i] fought during Napoleon Bonaparte [i]... 

 that followed belong to the general history of Europe; but the Tsar's attitude throughout is personal to himself, though pregnant with issues momentous for the world. In opposing Napoleon I, "the oppressor of Europe and the disturber of the world's peace", Alexander in fact already believed himself to be fulfilling a divine mission. In his instructions to Novosiltsov, his special envoy in London London

London is the capital [i] city of England [i] and of the United Kingdom [i]. ... 

, the Tsar elaborated the motives of his policy in language which appealed as little to the common sense of the prime minister, Pitt William Pitt the Younger

William Pitt the Younger was a British [i] politician during the late eighteenth [i] ... 

, as did later the treaty of the Holy Alliance to that of the foreign minister, Castlereagh. Yet the document is of great interest, as in it we find formulated for the first time in an official despatch those exalted ideals of international policy which were to play so conspicuous a part in the affairs of the world at the close of the revolutionary epoch, and issued at the end of the 19th century in the Rescript of Nicholas II Nicholas II of Russia

Nicholas II of Russia was the last Emperor of Russia [i], King of Poland [i], and Grand Duke of Finland [i] ... 

 and the conference of the Hague The Hague

The Hague is the third-largest city in the Netherlands [i] after Amsterdam [i] and Rotterdam [i] ... 

. The outcome of the war, Alexander argued, was not to be only the liberation of France, but the universal triumph of "the sacred rights of humanity Human rights

Human rights refers to the concept of human beings [i] as having universal rights [i], or status, regard ... 

". To attain this it would be necessary "after having attached the nations to their government by making these incapable of acting save in the greatest interests of their subjects, to fix the relations of the states amongst each other on more precise rules, and such as it is to their interest to respect."

A general treaty was to become the basis of the relations of the states forming "the European Confederation"; and this, though "it was no question of realizing the dream of universal peace, would attain some of its results if, at the conclusion of the general war, it were possible to establish on clear principles the prescriptions of the rights of nations." "Why could not one submit to it", the Tsar continued, "the positive rights of nations, assure the privilege of neutrality, insert the obligation of never beginning war until all the resources which the mediation of a third party could offer have been exhausted, having by this means brought to light the respective grievances, and tried to remove them? It is on such principles as these that one could proceed to a general pacification, and give birth to a league of which the stipulations would form, so to speak, a new code of the law of nations, which, sanctioned by the greater part of the nations of Europe, would without difficulty become the immutable rule of the cabinets, while those who should try to infringe it would risk bringing upon themselves the forces of the new union."

1807 loss to French forces



Meanwhile Napoleon, a little deterred by the Russian autocrat's youthful ideology, never gave up hope of detaching him from the coalition. He had no sooner entered Vienna Vienna

Vienna is the capital [i] of Austria [i], and also one of the nine States of Austria [i]. ... 

 in triumph than he opened negotiations with him; he resumed them after the Battle of Austerlitz Battle of Austerlitz

The Battle of Austerlitz, fought on December 2 [i], 1805 [i] about four mile [i]s east of the modern Czech [i] ... 

 . Imperial Russia Russian Empire

The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was declared a republic in August 1917.
... 

 and France, he urged, were "geographical allies"; there was, and could be, between them no true conflict of interests; together they might rule the world. But Alexander was still determined "to persist in the system of disinterestedness in respect of all the states of Europe which he had thus far followed", and he again allied himself with the Kingdom of Prussia Kingdom of Prussia

The Kingdom of Prussia was a kingdom [i] from 1701 to 1918 and, from 1871, was the leading state of the ... 

. The campaign of Jena and the battle of Eylau Battle of Eylau

The Battle of Eylau, fought on 7 [i]-February 8 [i], 1807 [i], was a bloody and inconclusive ... 

 followed; and Napoleon, though still intent on the Russian alliance, stirred up Poles Poles

The Poles are a western Slavic [i] people [i] inhabiting the country of Poland [i] and a numb ... 

, Turks Turkic peoples

Turkic peoples are Northern and Central Eurasian [i] peoples who speak languages belonging to th ... 

 and Persians Persian people

The Persians are an Iranian people [i] who speak the Persian language [i] and share a co ... 

 to break the obstinacy of the Tsar. A party too in Russia itself, headed by the Tsar's brother Constantine Pavlovich Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich of Russia

Constantine Pavlovich Romanov [i], grand duke [i] and tsesarevich [i] of Russia [i], was prepared by his ... 

, was clamorous for peace; but Alexander, after a vain attempt to form a new coalition, summoned the Russian nation to a holy war against Napoleon as the enemy of the Orthodox faith. The outcome was the rout of Friedland . Napoleon saw his chance and seized it. Instead of making heavy terms, he offered to the chastened autocrat his alliance, and a partnership in his glory.

The two Emperors met at Tilsit Sovetsk, Kaliningrad Oblast

Sovetsk is a town on the south bank of Neman River [i] in Kaliningrad Oblast [i], Russia [i]. ... 

 on 25 June, 1807. Alexander, dazzled by Napoleon's genius Genius

A genius is a person with distinguished mental abilities.... 

 and overwhelmed by his apparent generosity, was completely won. Napoleon knew well how to appeal to the exuberant imagination of his new-found friend. He would divide with Alexander the Empire of the world; as a first step he would leave him in possession of the Danubian Danube

The Danube is the longest river [i] of the European Union [i] and Europe [i]'s second-longest .
... 

 principalities and give him a free hand to deal with Finland Finland

The Republic of Finland , is one of the Nordic countries [i]. ... 

; and, afterwards, the Emperors of the East Byzantine Empire

Byzantine Empire is the term conventionally used since the 19th century [i] to describe the Greek-spea ... 

 and West Western Roman Empire

The Western Roman Empire is the name given to the western half of the Roman Empire [i] after its divisio ... 

, when the time should be ripe, would drive the Turks Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire , is also sometimes known in the West [i] as the Turkish Empire. ... 

 from Europe and march across Asia to the conquest of India Indian subcontinent

The Indian subcontinent is a peninsula landmass [i] of the Asia [i]n continent [i] occupying the Indian Plate [i] ... 

. A programme so stupendous awoke in Alexander's impressionable mind an ambition to which he had hitherto been a stranger. The interests of Europe were forgotten. "What is Europe?" he exclaimed to the French ambassador. "Where is it, if it is not you and we?"

Prussia

The brilliance of these new visions did not, however, blind Alexander to the obligations of friendship; and he refused to retain the Danubian principalities as the price for suffering a further dismemberment of Prussia. "We have made loyal war", he said, "we must make a loyal peace." It was not long before the first enthusiasm of Tilsit Sovetsk, Kaliningrad Oblast

Sovetsk is a town on the south bank of Neman River [i] in Kaliningrad Oblast [i], Russia [i]. ... 

 began to wane. Napoleon I was prodigal of promises, but niggard of their fulfilment. The French remained in Prussia, the Russians on the Danube; and each accused the other of breach of faith. Meanwhile, however, the personal relations of Alexander and Napoleon were of the most cordial character; and it was hoped that a fresh meeting might adjust all differences between
them. The meeting took place at Erfurt Erfurt

Erfurt is a city in central Germany [i]. ... 

 in October, 1808, and resulted in a treaty which defined the common policy of the two Emperors. But Alexander's relations with Napoleon none the less suffered a change. He realized that in Napoleon sentiment never got the better of reason, that as a matter of fact he had never intended his proposed "grand enterprise" seriously, and had only used it to preoccupy the mind of the Tsar while he consolidated his own power in Central Europe Central Europe

Central Europe is the region [i] lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern [i] ... 

. From this moment the French alliance was for Alexander also not a fraternal agreement to rule the world, but an affair of pure policy. He used it, in the first instance, to remove "the geographical enemy" from the gates of Saint Petersburg Saint Petersburg

Saint Petersburg listen is a city located in northwestern Russia [i] on t ... 

 by wresting Finland Finland

The Republic of Finland , is one of the Nordic countries [i]. ... 

 from the Swedes Sweden

The Kingdom of Sweden is a Nordic country [i] in Scandinavia [i]. ... 

 ; and he hoped by means of it to make the Danube the southern frontier of Russia.

Franco-Russian Alliance

Events were in fact rapidly tending to the rupture of the Franco-Russian alliance. Alexander, indeed, assisted Napoleon in the war of 1809, but he declared plainly that he would not allow the Austrian Empire Austrian Empire

The Austrian Empire was an empire centred on what is modern day Austria [i] that lasted from 1804 [i] to ... 

 to be crushed out of existence; and Napoleon complained bitterly of the inactivity of the Russian troops during the campaign. The Tsar in his turn protested against Napoleon's encouragement of the Poles Poles

The Poles are a western Slavic [i] people [i] inhabiting the country of Poland [i] and a numb ... 

. In the matter of the French alliance he knew himself to be practically isolated in Russia, and he declared that he could not sacrifice the interest of his people and empire to his affection for Napoleon. "I don't want anything for myself", he said to the French ambassador, "therefore the world is not large enough to come to an understanding on the affairs of Poland Poland

Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country located in Central Europe [i]. ... 

, if it is a question of its restoration."

The Treaty of Vienna, which added largely to the Duchy of Warsaw Duchy of Warsaw

The Duchy of Warsaw was a Polish [i] state established by Napoleon Bonaparte [i] in 1807 [i] from ... 

, he complained had "ill requited him for his loyalty", and he was only mollified for the time by Napoleon's public declaration that he had no intention of restoring Poland, and by a convention, signed on the 4 January, 1810 but not ratified, abolishing the Polish name and orders of chivalry Chivalry

Chivalry refers to the medieval [i] institution of knighthood [i] and, most especially, the ideals that... 

.

But if Alexander suspected Napoleon, Napoleon was no less suspicious of Alexander; and, partly to test his sincerity, he sent an almost peremptory request for the hand of the Grand Duchess Anne, the younger sister of the Tsar. After some little delay Alexander returned a polite refusal, on the plea of the tender age of the Princess and the objection of the Empress dowager Maria Fyodorovna to the marriage. Napoleon's answer was to refuse to ratify the convention of the 4 January, 1810 and to announce his engagement to the Archduchess Marie Louise Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma

Marie Louise was an Austria [i]n archduchess [i], the second wife of Napolon Bonaparte [i] ... 

 in such a way as to lead Alexander to suppose that the two marriage treaties had been negotiated simultaneously. From this time the relation between the two emperors gradually became more and more strained.

The annexation of Oldenburg Oldenburg

Oldenburg is an Independent City [i] in Lower Saxony [i], Germany [i]. ... 

, of which the Duke of Oldenburg  was the Tsar's uncle, to France France

France, officially the French Republic, is a country [i] whose metropolitan territory [i] ... 

 in December, 1810, added another to the personal grievances of Alexander against Napoleon; while the ruinous reaction of "the continental system" on Russian trade made it impossible for the Tsar to maintain a policy which was Napoleon's chief motive for the alliance. An acid correspondence followed, and ill-concealed armaments, which culminated in the [summer of 1812 in Napoleon's invasion of Russia. Yet, even after the French had passed the frontier, Alexander still protested that his personal sentiments towards the Emperor were unaltered; "but", he added, "God God

God is the deity [i] believed by monotheists [i] to be the supreme reality.... 

 Himself cannot undo the past." It was the occupation of Moscow Moscow

Moscow is the capital [i] of Russia [i] and the country's principal political, economic, financial, edu ... 

 and the desecration of the Kremlin Kremlin

Kremlin is the Russian [i] word for "fortress", "citadel", or "castle" and refers to a ... 

, the sacred centre of Holy Russia, that changed his sentiment for Napoleon into passionate hatred. In vain the French Emperor, within eight days of his entry into Moscow, wrote to the Tsar a letter, which was one long cry of distress, revealing the desperate straits of the Grand Army La Grande Armée

The name La Grande Arme first entered the annals of history when, in 1805, Napoleon I [i] ... 

, and appealed to "any remnant of his former sentiments." Alexander returned no answer to these
"fanfaronnades." "No more peace with Napoleon!" he cried, "He or I, I or He: we cannot longer reign together!"

The campaign of 1812


The campaign of 1812 was the turning-point of Alexander's life; and its horrors, for which his sensitive nature felt much of the responsibility, overset still more a mind never too well balanced. When Napoleon crossed the Russian border with his Grand Army La Grande Armée

The name La Grande Arme first entered the annals of history when, in 1805, Napoleon I [i] ... 

, Alexander I was quite unprepared for the war, trusting the Francophile chancellor Nikolay Rumyantsev Rumyantsev

The Rumyantsev family were Russia [i]n count [i]s prominent in Russian imperial politics in the 18th and... 

 more than his French ambassador Alexander Kurakin Alexander Kurakin

Prince Alexander Borisovich Kurakin, sometimes spelled Kourakine was a Russian statesman and diplo... 

, who had warned him about Napoleon's bellicose plans. Russia proclaimed a Patriotic War French invasion of Russia (1812)

The invasion of the Russian Empire [i] led by Napoleon I of France [i] in 1812 [i] was a turning point i ... 

 in defence of the Motherland. At the burning of Moscow Moscow

Moscow is the capital [i] of Russia [i] and the country's principal political, economic, financial, edu ... 

, he declared afterwards, his own soul had found illumination, and he had realized once for all the divine revelation to him of his mission as the peacemaker of Europe. He tried to calm the unrest of his conscience by correspondence with the leaders of the evangelical revival on the continent Continent

A continent is a large continuous landmass [i]. ... 

, and sought for omens and supernatural Supernatural

The supernatural refers to forces and phenomena which are not observed in nature, and therefore beyond ... 

 guidance in texts and passages of scripture Religious text

Most religions have religious texts they view as sacred.... 

. It was not, however, according to his own account, till he met the Baroness de Krüdener Barbara Juliana, Baroness von Krüdener

... 

 — a religious adventuress who made the conversion of princes her special mission—at Basel Basel

Basel is Switzerland [i]'s third most populous city .
... 

, in the autumn of 1813, that his soul found peace. From this time a mystic Mysticism

Mysticism from the Greek [i] ?st???? "an initiate" is the pursuit of achieving communi ... 

 pietism became the avowed force of his political, as of his private actions. Madame de Krüdener, and her colleague, the evangelist Empaytaz, became the confidants of the Emperor's most secret thoughts; and during the campaign that ended in the occupation of Paris Paris

native_name = Ville de Paris
|common_name = Paris
... 

 the imperial prayer Prayer

Prayer is an active effort to communicate with a deity [i] or spirit, including a monotheist [i] ... 

-meetings were the oracle on whose revelations hung the fate of the world.

Liberal political views

From the end of the year 1818 Alexander's views began to change. A revolution Revolution

A revolution is a drastic change that usually occurs relatively quickly.... 

ary conspiracy among the officers of the guard, and a foolish plot to kidnap him on his way to the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, are said to have shaken the foundations of his Liberalism Liberalism

Liberalism is an ideology [i], philosophical view [i], and political tradition which holds that liberty [i] ... 

. At Aix he came for the first time into intimate contact with Metternich Klemens Wenzel von Metternich

Klemens Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar Frst [i] von Metternich-Winneberg-Beilstein was an Austrian [i] politician [i] ... 

. From this time dates the ascendancy of Metternich over the mind of the Russian Emperor and in the councils of Europe. It was, however, no case of sudden conversion. Though alarmed by the revolutionary agitation in Germany, which culminated in the murder of his agent, the dramatist August von Kotzebue , Alexander approved of Castlereagh's protest against Metternich's policy of "the governments contracting an alliance against the peoples", as formulated in the Carlsbad Decrees of July 1819, and deprecated any intervention of Europe to support "a league of which the sole object is the absurd pretensions of absolute power."

He still declared his belief in "free institutions, though not in such as age forced from feebleness, nor contracts ordered by popular leaders from their sovereigns, nor constitutions granted in difficult circumstances to tide over a crisis. "Liberty", he maintained, "should be confined within just limits. And the limits of liberty are the principles of order".

It was the apparent triumph of the principles of disorder in the revolutions of Naples Naples

Naples is the largest city in southern Italy [i] and capital of Campania [i] region and the Province of Naples [i] ... 

 and Piedmont Piedmont

Piedmont is a region [i] of northwestern Italy [i]. ... 

, combined with increasingly disquieting symptoms of discontent in France, Germany, and among his own people, that completed Alexander's conversion. In the seclusion of the little town of Troppau Opava

colspan="2" align="center" bgcolor="#E0922E">Statistics [i] ... 

, where in October 1820 the powers met in conference, Metternich Klemens Wenzel von Metternich

Klemens Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar Frst [i] von Metternich-Winneberg-Beilstein was an Austrian [i] politician [i] ... 

 found an opportunity for cementing his influence over Alexander, which had been wanting amid the turmoil and feminine intrigues of Vienna and Aix. Here, in confidence begotten of friendly chats over afternoon tea, the disillusioned autocrat confessed his mistake. "You have nothing to regret", he said sadly to the exultant chancellor, "but I have!"

The issue was momentous. In January Alexander had still upheld the ideal of a free confederation of the European states, symbolized by the Holy Alliance, against the policy of a dictatorship of the great powers, symbolized by the Quadruple Treaty; he had still protested against the claims of collective Europe to interfere in the internal concerns of the sovereign states. On 19 November he signed the Troppau Protocol, which consecrated the principle of intervention and wrecked the harmony of the concert.

The revolt of the Greeks

At Congress of Laibach, whither in the spring of 1821 the congress had been adjourned, Alexander first heard of the Revolt of the Greeks Greek War of Independence

The Greek War of Independence, also known as the Greek Revolution, was a successful war waged by t... 

. From this time until his death his mind was torn between his anxiety to realize his dream of a confederation of Europe and his traditional mission as leader of the Orthodox crusade against the Ottoman Empire Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire , is also sometimes known in the West [i] as the Turkish Empire. ... 

. At first, under the careful nursing of Metternich Klemens Wenzel von Metternich

Klemens Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar Frst [i] von Metternich-Winneberg-Beilstein was an Austrian [i] politician [i] ... 

, the former motive prevailed.

He struck the name of Alexander Ypsilanti from the Russian army list, and directed his foreign minister, Giovanni, Count Capo d'Istria John Capodistria

Count Ioannis Antonios Kapodistrias was a Greek [i]-born diplomat of the Russian Empire [i] and l ... 

, himself a Greek, to disavow all sympathy of Russia Russia

Russia , also the Russian Federation , is a country [i] that stretches over a vast expanse of Eurasia [i] ... 

 with his enterprise; and, next year, a deputation of the Morea Morea

Morea was the name of the Peloponnese [i] peninsula in southern Greece [i] during the Middle Ages [i] an ... 

 Greeks on its way to the Congress of Verona was turned back by his orders on the road.

He made, indeed, some effort to reconcile the principles at conflict in his mind. He offered to surrender the claim, successfully asserted when the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II Mahmud II

Mahmud II (July 20 [i], 1785 [i] – July 1 [i], 1839 [i]) was the 27th Sultan [i] of the Ottoman Empire [i] ... 

 had been excluded from the Holy Alliance and the affairs of the Ottoman empire from the deliberations of Vienna, that the affairs of the East were the "domestic concerns of Russia", and to march into the Ottoman Empire, as Austria had marched into Naples Naples

Naples is the largest city in southern Italy [i] and capital of Campania [i] region and the Province of Naples [i] ... 

, "as the mandatory of Europe."

Metternich's opposition to this, illogical, but natural from the Austrian point of view, first opened his eyes to the true character of Austria's attitude towards his ideals. Once more in Russia, far from the fascination of Metternich's personality, the immemorial spirit of his people drew him back into itself; and when, in the autumn of 1825, he took his dying Empress Louise of Baden Louise of Baden

Empress Elisabeth Alexeievna of Russia, born Louise Marie Auguste, Princess of Baden of the House ... 

  for change of air to the south of Russia, in order—as all Europe supposed—to place himself at the head of the great army concentrated near the Ottoman frontiers, his language was no longer that of "the peace-maker of Europe", but of the Orthodox Tsar determined to take the interests of his people and of his religion "into his own hands". Before the momentous issue could be decided, however, Alexander died, "crushed", to use his own words, "beneath the terrible burden of a crown" which he had more than once declared his intention of resigning.

Private life

He had been married, on October 9, 1793, without his wishes being consulted, to the princess Louise of Baden Louise of Baden

Empress Elisabeth Alexeievna of Russia, born Louise Marie Auguste, Princess of Baden of the House ... 

 , a political match which, as he regretfully confessed to his friend Frederick William III Frederick William III of Prussia

Frederick William III was king of Prussia [i] from 1797 [i] to 1840 [i]. ... 

, had proved the misfortune of both; and he consoled himself in the traditional manner. The two children of the marriage, grandduchess Maria died on 26 June 1800, and the grandduchess Elizaveta died on 12 May 1808. Their common sorrow drew husband and wife closer together. Towards the close of his life their reconciliation was completed by the wise charity of the Empress in sympathizing deeply with him over the death of his beloved daughter by Princess Maria Naryshkina.

Death

Tsar Alexander I, became increasingly involved in mysticism Mysticism

Mysticism from the Greek [i] ?st???? "an initiate" is the pursuit of achieving communi ... 

 and increasingly more suspicious of those around him. On the way to the conference in Aachen Aachen

Aachen is a spa city in North Rhine-Westphalia [i], Germany [i], on the border with Belgium [i] and the ... 

, Germany Germany

Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a country [i] in central Europe [i]. ... 

, an attempt had been made to kidnap him which made him more suspicious of the people around him.



In the autumn of 1825, due to increasing illness of Alexander's wife, the Emperor undertook a voyage to the south of Russia. During this trip, he himself caught a cold which developed into typhus, from which he died in the southern city of Taganrog Taganrog

Taganrog is a seaport city located on Taganrog Bay [i] in Rostov Oblast [i], Russia [i]. ... 

 on November 19 /December 1, 1825. His wife died few weeks later, as the emperor's body was transported to St. Petersburg Saint Petersburg

Saint Petersburg listen is a city located in northwestern Russia [i] on t ... 

 for the funeral. He was interred at the Sts. Peter and Paul Cathedral of the Peter and Paul Fortress Peter and Paul Fortress

The Peter and Paul Fortress is the original citadel of St. Petersburg [i], Russia [i], ... 

 in St. Petersburg on March 13, 1826.

The unexpected death of the Emperor of Russia Tsar

Tsar , occasionally spelled Czar or Tzar and sometimes Csar or Zar in English [i] ... 

 far from the capital caused persistent rumours that his death and funeral were staged, while the emperor allegedly renounced the crown and retired to spend the rest of his life in solitude. It was rumoured that a "soldier" was buried as Alexander, or that the grave was empty, or that a British ambassador at the Russian court said he had seen Alexander boarding a ship. Some claimed that the former emperor had become a monk Monk

A monk is a person who practices asceticism [i], the conditioning of mind and body in favor of the spiri... 

 in either Pochaev Lavra Pochayiv Lavra

Pochayiv Lavra of the Assumption of the Theotokos has for centuries been the foremost spiritual and ideo... 

 or Kievo-Pecherskaya Lavra</