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Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah
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Abu ‘Ali Mansur Tariqu l-?akim, called bi Amr al-Lah (; literally "Ruler by God's Command"), was the sixth Fatimid caliph and 16th Ismaili imam (996-1021).
Born in 985, Abu ‘Ali “Mansur” succeeded his father Abu Mansur Nizar al-Aziz (975-996) at the age of eleven on 14 October, 996 with the caliphal title of al-Hakim Bi-Amr Allah. He was the first Fatimid ruler to be born in Egypt.
Arguably the most controversial member of the Fatimid dynasty, Hakim confronted numerous difficulties and uprisings during his relatively long reign.
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Abu ‘Ali Mansur Tariqu l-?akim, called bi Amr al-Lah (; literally "Ruler by God's Command"), was the sixth Fatimid caliph and 16th Ismaili imam (996-1021).
Born in 985, Abu ‘Ali “Mansur” succeeded his father Abu Mansur Nizar al-Aziz (975-996) at the age of eleven on 14 October, 996 with the caliphal title of al-Hakim Bi-Amr Allah. He was the first Fatimid ruler to be born in Egypt.
Arguably the most controversial member of the Fatimid dynasty, Hakim confronted numerous difficulties and uprisings during his relatively long reign. While he did not lose any important territories in North Africa, the Ismaili communities there were massacred by Sunni mobs led by their influential Maliki jurists. Relations between the Fatimids and the Qarmatians of Bahrain also remained hostile. On the other hand, Hakim’s Syrian policy was successful as he managed to extend Fatimid hegemony to the emirate of Aleppo. Above all, the persistent rivalries between the various factions of the Fatimid armies, especially the Berbers and the Turks, overshadowed the other problems of Hakim’s caliphate.
Initially, Barjawan, his wasita (the equivalent of a vizier, as intermediary between ruler and subjects) acted as the virtual head of the Fatimid state. However, after the latter’s removal in 1000, Hakim held the reins of power in his own hands limiting the authority and terms of office of his wasitas and viziers, of whom there were more than 15 during the remaining 20 years of his caliphate. Also Al-Hakim is a central figure in the Druze religious sect.
Lineage
Al-?akim was born on Thursday, 3 Rabi‘u l-Awwal in 375 A.H. (985). His father, Caliph Abu Mansur al-‘Aziz bil-Lah, had two consorts. One was an umm al-walad who is only known by the title as-Sayyidah al-‘Aziziyyah or al-‘Azizah (d. 385/995). She was a Melkite Christian whose two brothers were appointed patriarchs of the Melkite Church by Caliph al-‘Aziz. Different sources say either one of her brothers or her father was sent by al-‘Aziz as an ambassador to Sicily.
Al-‘Azizah is considered to be the mother of Sitt al-Mulk, one of the most famous women in Islamic history, who had a stormy relationship with her half-brother al-?akim and may have had him murdered. Some, such as the Crusader chronicler William of Tyre, claimed that this woman was also the mother of Caliph al-?akim, though most historians dismiss this. William of Tyre went so far as to claim that al-?akim's destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in 400/1009 was due to his eagerness to disprove taunts that he was a Christian born of a Christian woman. By contrast, the chronicler al-Musabbihi recounts that in 371/981, al-?akim's Muslim mother sought the aid of an imprisoned Islamic sage named ibn al-Washa and asked him to pray for her son who had fallen ill. The sage wrote the entire Qur'an in the inner surface of a bowl and bade her wash her son out of it. When al-?akim recovered, she demanded the release of the sage in gratitude. Her request was granted and the sage and his associates were freed from prison.
Druze sources claim that al-?akim's mother was the daughter of ‘Abdu l-Lah, one of al-Mu‘izz li Din al-Lah's sons and therefore al-‘Aziz's niece. Historians such as Delia Cortese are critical of this claim:
Spouses and children
The mother of al-?akim's heir ‘Ali az-Zahir was the umm al-walad Amina Ruqayya, daughter to the late prince ‘Abdu l-Lah, son of al-Mu‘izz. Some see her as the same as the woman in the prediction reported by al-Hamidi which held "that in 390/100 al-?akim would choose an orphan girl of good stock brough up his father al-Aziz and that she would become the mother of his successor." While the chronicler al-Maqrizi claims that al-?akim's stepsister Sitt al-Mulk was hostile to Amina, other sources say she gave her and her child refuge when they were fleeing al-?akim's persecution. Some sources say al-?akim married the jariya (young female servant) known as as-Sayyidah but historians are unsure if this is just another name for Amina.
Besides his son, al-?akim had a daughter named Sitt Misr (d. 455/1063) who was said to be a generous patroness and of noble and good character.
Rise to power
In 996, al-?akim's father Caliph al-‘Aziz began a trip to visit Syria (which was held by the Fatimid's only by force of arms and was under pressure from both Greeks and Turks). The Caliph fell ill at the beginning of the trip at Bilbeis and lay in sickbed for several days. He suffered from "stone with pains in the bowels." When he felt that his end was nearing he charged Qadi Muhammad ibn an-Nu‘man and General Abu Muhammad al-Hasan ibn ‘Ammar to take care of al-?akim, who was then only eleven. He then spoke to his son. Al-?akim later recalled the event: On the following day he and his new court proceeded from Bilbays to Cairo. His father's body proceeded him. Borne on a camel the dead Caliph’s feet protruded from the litter. They arrived shortly before evening prayer and his father was buried the next evening next to the tomb of his predecessor al-Mu‘izz. Al-?akim was sworn in by Barjawan, a "white eunuch whom al-‘Aziz had appointed as Ustad 'tutor'."
Because it had been unclear whether he would inherit his father's position, this successful transfer of power was a demonstration of the stability of the Fatimid dynasty.
Political intrigue
Al-?akim's father had intended the eunuch Barjawan to act as regent until he was old enough to rule by himself. Ibn ‘Ammar and the Qadi Muhammad ibn Nu‘man were to assist in the guardianship of the new caliph. Instead, ibn ‘Ammar (the leader of the Katama party) immediately seized the office of wasita "chief minister" from ‘Isa ibn Nestorius. At the time the office of sifara "secretary of state" was also combined within that office. Ibn ‘Ammar then took the title of Amin ad-Dawla "the one trusted in the empire". This was the first time that the term "empire" was associated with the Fatimid state.
Political rivalries and movements
Al-?akim's most rigorous and consistent opponent was the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad, which sought to halt the influence of Ismailism. This competition led to the Baghdad Manifesto of 1011, in which the Abbasids claimed that the line al-?akim represented did not legitimately descend from ‘Ali.
Al-?akim also struggled with the Qarmatiyya rulers of Bahrain, an island in the Persian Gulf as well as territory in Eastern Arabia. His diplomatic and missionary vehicle was the Isma'ili da‘wah "Mission", with its organizational power center in Cairo.
Al-?akim's reign was characterized by a general unrest. The Fatimid army was troubled by a rivalry between two opposing factions, the Turks and the Berbers. Tension grew between the Caliph and his viziers (called wasitas), and near the end of his reign the Druze movement, a religious sect centered around al-?akim, began to form. It was the Druze who first referred to al-?akim as "Ruler by God's Command" and members of that sect are reported to address prayers to al-?akim, whom they regard as "a manifestation of God in His unity."
The Baghdad Manifesto
Alarmed by the expansion of the Fatimid dominion, the ‘Abbasid caliph Al-Qadir adopted retaliatory measures to halt the spread of Ismailism within the very seat of his realm. In particular, in 1011 he assembled a number of Sunni and Twelver Shiite scholars at his court and commanded them to declare in a written document that Hakim and his predecessors lacked genuine Ali and Fatima related ancestry. This so-called Baghdad Manifesto was read out in Friday mosques throughout the ‘Abbasid domains accusing the Fatimids of Jewish ancestry also because of Al-Hakim’s alleged Christian mother he was accused of over sympathizing with non-Muslims and that he gave them more privileges than they should have been given under Islamic rule such accusations where manifested through poetry criticizing the Fatimids and that eventually led to the persecution of non-Muslims from 1007 till 1012 . Qadir also commissioned several refutations of Ismaili doctrines, including that written by the Mu‘tazili ‘Ali b. Sa‘id al-Istakri (1013). .
The Fatimid Ismaili Movement
Hakim maintained a keen interest in the organization and operation of the Fatimid Ismaili da‘wa(movement) centred in Cairo. Under his reign it was systematically intensified outside the Fatimid dominions especially in Iraq and Persia. In Iraq, the da‘is now concentrated their efforts on a number of local amirs and influential tribal chiefs with whose support they aimed to uproot the Abbasids. Foremost among the Fatimid da‘is of this period operating in the eastern provinces was Hamid al-Din Kirmani, the most accomplished Ismaili theologian-philosopher of the entire Fatimid period. The activities of Kirmani and other da‘s soon led to concrete results in Iraq: in 1010 the ruler of Mosul, Kufa and other towns acknowledged the suzerainty of Hakim.
House of Knowledge
In the area of education and learning, one of Hakim’s most important contributions was the founding in 1005 of the Dar al-‘ilm (House of Knowledge), sometimes also called Dar al-hikma . A wide range of subjects ranging from the Qur’an and hadith to philosophy and astronomy were taught at the Dar al-‘ilm, which was equipped with a vast library. Access to education was made available to the public and many Fatimid da‘is received at least part of their training in this major institution of learning which served the Ismaili da‘wa (mission) until the downfall of the Fatimid dynasty. .
In 1013 he completed the mosque in Cairo begun by his father, the Masjid al-Hakim "Hakim's Mosque" whose official name is "Jame-ul-Anwar". The mosque fell to ruins and was restored to its former glory some twenty years ago by Dr. Syedna Mohammed Burhanuddin, after much research and expense.
Sessions of Wisdom
Hakim made the education of the Ismailis and the Fatimid da‘is a priority; in his time various study sessions (majalis) were established in Cairo. Hakim provided financial support and endowments for these educational activities. The private ‘wisdom sessions’ (majalis al-hikma) devoted to esoteric Ismaili doctrines and reserved exclusively for initiates, now became organized so as to be accessible to different categories of participants. Hakim himself often attended these sessions which were held at the Fatimid palace. ..The name (majalis al-hikma) is still adopted by the Druze as the name of the building in which their religious assembly and worship is carried, it’s often abbreviated as Majlis (session).
Foreign affairs
Al-?akim upheld diplomatic relations between the Fatimid Empire and many different countries. Skillful diplomacy was needed in establishing a friendly if not neutral basis of relations with the Byzantine Empire, which had expansionary goals in the early 11th century. Perhaps the farthest reaching diplomatic mission of al-?akim's was to Song Dynasty era China. The Fatimid Egyptian sea captain known as Domiyat traveled to a Buddhist site of pilgrimage in Shandong in the year 1008 AD. It was on this mission that he sought to present to the Chinese Emperor Zhenzong of Song gifts from his ruling Caliph al-?akim. This reestablished diplomatic relations between Egypt and China that had been lost during the collapse of the Tang Dynasty in 907.
Interreligious relationships
According to the religious scholar Nissim Dana, al-?akim's relationship with other monotheistic religions can be divided into three separate stages.
First period
From 996-1006 when most of the executive functions of the Khalif were performed by his advisors, the Shiite al-?akim "behaved like the Shiite khalifs, who he succeeded, exhibiting a hostile attitude with respect to Sunni Muslims, whereas the attitude toward 'People of the Book' - Jews and Christians - was one of relative tolerance, in exchange for the jizya tax."
In 1005, al-?akim ordered a public posting of curses against the first three Caliphs (Abu Bakr, ‘Umar and ‘Uthman ibn ‘Affan) and against ‘A'isha (wife of Muhammad) all for opposing the claim of Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law ‘Ali, who had demanded the position of Caliph for himself and his descendants. The founder of the Umayyad caliphate, Mu‘awiyah I, and others among the ?a?abah of Muhammad were also cursed. After only two years of posting the curses, al-?akim ended the practice. During this era, al-?akim ordered that the inclusion of the phrase as-salah khayr min an-nawm "prayer is preferable to sleep", which followed the morning prayer be stopped - he saw it as a Sunni addition. In its place he ordered that ?ayyi ‘ala khayr al-‘amal "come to the best of deeds" should be said after the summons was made. He further forbade the use of two prayers - Salat at-Tarawih and Salat ad-Duha as they were believed to have been formulated by Sunni sages.
Religious Minorities and the Law of Differentation
His attitude towards Christians grew hostile by 1003 when he ordered a recently built church destroyed and replaced by a mosque and went on to turn two other churches into mosques. He also outlawed the use of wine (nabidh) and even other intoxicating drinks not made from grapes (fuqa) to both Muslims and non-Muslims alike. This produced a hardship for both Christians (who used wine in their religious rites) and Jews (who used it in their religious festivals).
In 1005, following the tradition of the caliphate, al-?akim ordered that Jews and Christians follow ghiyar "the law of differentiation" - in this case, the mintaq or zunnar "belt" (Greek ???a????) and ‘imamah "turban", both in black. In addition, Jews must wear a wooden calf necklace and Christians an iron cross. In the public baths, Jews must replace the calf with a bell. In addition, women of the Ahl al-Kitab had to wear two different coloured shoes, one red and one black. These remained in place until 1014.
Al-?akim engaged in other erratic behaviour in 1005: he ordered the killing of all the dogs in Egypt and had them discarded in the desert. He also forced the inhabitants of Cairo to work at night and go to bed in the mornings and severely punished anyone caught violating his orders.
Following contemporary Shiite thinking, during this period al-?akim also issued many other rigid restrictive ordinances (sijillat). These sijill included outlawing entrance to a public bath with uncovered loins, forbidding women from appearing in public with their faces uncovered, and closing many clubs and places of entertainment.
Second period
From 1007-1012 "there was a notably tolerant attitude toward the Sunnis and less zeal for Shiite Islam, while the attitude with regard to the 'People of the Book' was hostile."
In 1009, he ordered the destruction of the Holy Sepulcher
Third period
From 1012-1021 al-?akim
While it is clear that Hamza ibn Ahmad was the Caliph's chief , there are claims that al-?akim believed in his own divinity.
Other scholars disagree with this assertion of direct divinity, particularly the Druze themselves, noting that its proponent was ad-Darazi, who (according to some resources) al-?akim executed for shirk. Letters show that ad-Darazi was trying to gain control of the Muwahhidun movement and this claim was an attempt to gain support from the Caliph, who instead found it heretical.
The Druze find this assertion offensive; they hold ad-Darazi as the first apostate of the sect and their beliefs regarding al-?akim are complex. Following a typical Isma'ili pattern, they place a preeminent teacher at the innermost circle of divinely inspired persons. For the Druze, the exoteric is taught by the Prophet, the esoteric by his secret assistants, and the esoteric of the esoteric by Imam al-?akim.
Confusion and slander by opponents of the Druze were generally left uncorrected as the teachings of the sect are secret and the Druze preferred taqiyya when independence was impossible.
Eccentric behavior
Al-?akim issued a series of seemingly arbitrary laws, including the prohibition of Mulukhiyya, a characteristic Egyptian dish, grape eating, watercress eating as well as the prohibition of chess. He forbade the fisherman from catching any fish that had no scales and forbade people from selling or eating such fish.
According to ibn Najjar in History of Baghdad, al-?akim conspired to draw the attention of the Muslim world towards Egypt by planning to steal the bodies of Muhammad and his companions Abu Bakr and ‘Umar. Al-?akim built an expensive enclosure to hold their remains and sent Abu l-Fatuh to Medina to carry out the plan. When Abu al-Fatuh arrived in Medina, the residents learned of this plot and gathered around him threateningly. Qari Zalbani recited the following verses of the Qur’an to him:
The residents of Medina became furious and were about to kill Abu al-Fatuh and his soldiers, when he became afraid and said, "I shall never carry out this dirty plan even if the ruler kills me." In the meanwhile, a big storm swept through the area, destroying many houses and killing many animals and people. Abu al-Fatuh fled from Medina and nothing more came of al-?akim's plot.
In 1014, he ordered women not to go out at all, and ordered the shoemakers not to make any women's shoes.
Al-?akim killed many of his officials both high and low in rank: his tutor Abu l-Qasim Sa‘id ibn Sa‘id al-Fariqi, most of his viziers, judges, poets, physicians, bathhouse keepers, cooks, cousin, soldiers, Jews, Christians, intelligence gatherers and even cut the hands of female slaves in his palace. In some cases, he did the killing himself.
In 1009, he destroyed the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, then under Fatimid control. The church was later rebuilt by his successor with help from the Byzantine Empire.
Although Christians were not allowed to buy slaves, male or female, and had few other privileges, they were allowed to ride horses on the condition that they rode with wooden saddles and unornamented girths.
Towards the end of his reign he became increasingly erratic and feared by his officials, soldiers and subjects alike. Muslim and Christian dignitaries alike went to his palace kissing the ground, and stood at the palace gates asking him for forgiveness, and not to listen to any rumors that were spreading. They raised a petition to al-?akim and he forgave them.
Death and succession
The Disappearance of al-Hakim
In the final years of his reign, Hakim displayed a growing inclination toward asceticism and withdrew for meditation regularly. On the night of February 1021 and at the age of , Hakim left for one of his nocturnal outings to the Muqattam hills outside of Cairo, but never returned. A futile search was conducted for the 36 year old caliph-imam; only his riding donkey and his bloodstained garments were found. The mystery of Hakim’s disappearance was never solved. .
Al-?akim was succeeded by his young son Ali az-Zahir under the regency of his sister Sitt al-Mulk.
In literature
The story of Hakim's life inspired (presumably through Silvestre de Sacy) the French author Gérard de Nerval who recounted his version of it (“Histoire du Calife Hakem”: History of the Caliph Hakem) as an appendix to his Voyage en Orient.
See also
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