Akwesasne
Encyclopedia
Mohawk nation
Mohawk are the most easterly tribe of the Iroquois confederation. They call themselves Kanien'gehaga, people of the place of the flint...
(Kanien'kehá:ka) territory that straddles the intersection of international (United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
and Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
) and provincial (Ontario
Ontario
Ontario is a province of Canada, located in east-central Canada. It is Canada's most populous province and second largest in total area. It is home to the nation's most populous city, Toronto, and the nation's capital, Ottawa....
and Quebec
Quebec
Quebec or is a province in east-central Canada. It is the only Canadian province with a predominantly French-speaking population and the only one whose sole official language is French at the provincial level....
) borders on both banks of the Saint Lawrence River
Saint Lawrence River
The Saint Lawrence is a large river flowing approximately from southwest to northeast in the middle latitudes of North America, connecting the Great Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean. It is the primary drainage conveyor of the Great Lakes Basin...
. Most of the land is in what is otherwise the United States. Although divided by an international border, the residents consider themselves to be one community. Beginning in the mid-18th century as one of the smallest Mohawk communities on the St. Lawrence River, today Akwesasne has 12,000 residents, resulting in the largest population and land area of any Kanien'kehá:ka community. It is one of several Kanien'kehá:ka territories within present-day Canada: Kahnawake, Kanesatake, and the Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation.
The name Akwesasne in Kanien'kéha
Mohawk language
Mohawk is an Iroquoian language spoken by around 2,000 people of the Mohawk nation in the United States and Canada . Mohawk has the largest number of speakers of the Northern Iroquoian languages; today it is the only one with greater than a thousand remaining...
(Mohawk language) means "Land Where the Ruffed Grouse
Ruffed Grouse
The Ruffed Grouse is a medium-sized grouse occurring in forests from the Appalachian Mountains across Canada to Alaska. It is non-migratory.The Ruffed Grouse is frequently referred to as a "partridge"...
Drums", referring to the rich wildlife in the area when founded. The Ruffed grouse was called a partridge by the early Europeans and as such some Mohawks use this European name. Beginning in the 18th century, Akwesasne was one of the Seven Nations of Canada
Seven Nations of Canada
The Seven Nations of Canada were a historic confederation of Canadian First Nations living in and around the Saint Lawrence River valley beginning in the eighteenth century. They were allied to New France and often included substantial numbers of Roman Catholic converts. During the Seven Years War...
.
Geography
Akwesasne territory incorporates part of the St. Lawrence River, the mouths of the RaquetteRaquette River
The Raquette River, sometimes spelled Racquette, originates at Raquette Lake in the Adirondack Mountains in New York. long, it is the third longest river entirely in the state of New York....
and St. Regis River
St. Regis River
The St. Regis River is an river in northern New York in the USA. It flows into the Saint Lawrence River at the hamlet of St Regis in the St. Regis Mohawk Reservation. The Saint Regis River basin includes Upper and Lower St. Regis Lakes, and Saint Regis Pond in the Saint Regis Canoe Area.-External...
s, and a number of islands in these three rivers. The territory is divided north/south by an international boundary. The northern portion is further divided by the Canadian provincial boundary between Ontario and Quebec.
The Three Nations Crossing connects Kawehno:ke
Cornwall Island (Ontario)
Cornwall Island is an island in the Saint Lawrence River, directly south of the city of Cornwall. The island is located completely in Canada, but is also part of the Akwesasne Mohawk reserve that straddles the Canada – United States border border as well as the Quebec – Ontario border.- Illegal...
(Cornwall Island, Ontario) to the City of Cornwall in the north and Rooseveltown
Rooseveltown, New York
Rooseveltown, New York is a hamlet in the town of Massena, New York, United States located in St. Lawrence County, New York. It is near the eastern town line by the Raquette River....
, New York in the south.
Because of the St. Lawrence River to the north and New York State, USA to the south, the Quebec portion of the Akwesasne reserve is an exclave claimed by Canada. To travel by land from Tsi:Snaine (Snye or Chenail, Quebec) or Kana:takon (Saint Regis, Quebec) to elsewhere in Canada, one must drive through New York State.
In the U.S. state of New York, Akwesasne coincides with the St. Regis Indian Reservation
St. Regis Mohawk Reservation, New York
St. Regis Mohawk Reservation is a Mohawk Indian reservation in Franklin County, New York, United States. It is also known by its Mohawk name, Akwesasne. The population was 2,699 at the 2000 census. The reservation is adjacent to the Akwesasne reserve in Ontario and Quebec. The Mohawk consider the...
. This portion of Akwesasne is bisected by New York State Route 37
New York State Route 37
New York State Route 37 is a state highway in the North Country of New York in the United States, extending for on a west–east axis. The western terminus of the route is at an intersection with U.S. Route 11 in Watertown, Jefferson County...
. This major state highway in the North Country
North Country
-Locations:North America*The extreme northern regions of the continental United States, bordering Canada **North Country Trail, a long-distance foot trail...
of New York, extends for 127.40 miles (205.03 km) on an east-west axis.
History
Beginning about 1000 AD, nomadic indigenous people around the Great Lakes began adopting the cultivation of maizeMaize
Maize known in many English-speaking countries as corn or mielie/mealie, is a grain domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mesoamerica in prehistoric times. The leafy stalk produces ears which contain seeds called kernels. Though technically a grain, maize kernels are used in cooking as a vegetable...
. By the 14th century, Iroquoian-speaking peoples, later called the St. Lawrence Iroquoians
St. Lawrence Iroquoians
The St. Lawrence Iroquoians were a prehistoric First Nations/Native American indigenous people who lived from the 14th century until about 1580 CE along the shores of the St. Lawrence River in present-day Quebec and Ontario, Canada, and New York State, United States. They spoke Laurentian...
, had created fortified villages along the fertile valley of what is now called the St. Lawrence River. Among their villages were Stadacona
Stadacona
Stadacona was a 16th century St. Lawrence Iroquoian village near present-day Quebec City.French explorer and navigator Jacques Cartier, travelling and charting the Saint Lawrence River, reached it on 7 September 1535. He returned to Stadacona to spend the winter there with his group of 110 men...
and Hochelaga
Hochelaga
Hochelaga may refer to:Hochelaga* Hochelaga , a 16th century village on the Island of Montreal* Hochelaga Archipelago, Montreal and surrounding islands...
, visited in 1535-1536 by explorer Jacques Cartier
Jacques Cartier
Jacques Cartier was a French explorer of Breton origin who claimed what is now Canada for France. He was the first European to describe and map the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the shores of the Saint Lawrence River, which he named "The Country of Canadas", after the Iroquois names for the two big...
. While they shared certain culture with other Iroquoian groups, archeological and linguistic
Linguistics
Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. Linguistics can be broadly broken into three categories or subfields of study: language form, language meaning, and language in context....
studies since the 1950s have demonstrated they were a distinctly separate people. They spoke a branch of Iroquoian called Laurentian
Laurentian
Laurentian may refer to:*Anything related to Saint Lawrence or the Saint Lawrence River*Laurentia, the craton at the heart of the North American continent...
.
By the time Samuel de Champlain
Samuel de Champlain
Samuel de Champlain , "The Father of New France", was a French navigator, cartographer, draughtsman, soldier, explorer, geographer, ethnologist, diplomat, and chronicler. He founded New France and Quebec City on July 3, 1608....
explored the same area 75 years later, the villages had disappeared. Historians are continuing to examine this culture and drastic change, but theorize that the stronger Kanienkehaka (Mohawk) waged war against the St. Lawrence Iroquoians to get control of the fur trade
Fur trade
The fur trade is a worldwide industry dealing in the acquisition and sale of animal fur. Since the establishment of world market for in the early modern period furs of boreal, polar and cold temperate mammalian animals have been the most valued...
and hunting along the valley below Tadoussac. (The Montagnais controlled Tadoussac.) By 1600, the Mohawk used the valley for hunting grounds and as a path for war parties.
Akwesasne was founded in the late 1750s by Kanien'kehá:ka people (also spelled Onkwehonwe) from the Kahnawake community, established downriver since the early 18th century in present-day Canada across the St. Lawrence River south of Montreal
Montreal
Montreal is a city in Canada. It is the largest city in the province of Quebec, the second-largest city in Canada and the seventh largest in North America...
. Kahnawake included mostly Kanien'kehá:ka (known for years among English speakers as Mohawk) and other First Nations people, some of whom migrated from traditional territory in present-day New York and converted to Roman Catholicism. French Jesuits established a mission and church at Kahnawake. During colonial years, members of this community were actively involved in the fur trade
Fur trade
The fur trade is a worldwide industry dealing in the acquisition and sale of animal fur. Since the establishment of world market for in the early modern period furs of boreal, polar and cold temperate mammalian animals have been the most valued...
. Some regularly traveled to Albany, New York
Albany, New York
Albany is the capital city of the U.S. state of New York, the seat of Albany County, and the central city of New York's Capital District. Roughly north of New York City, Albany sits on the west bank of the Hudson River, about south of its confluence with the Mohawk River...
for better prices from the English and Dutch than the French were willing to give.
Due to exhaustion of land at Kahnawake and the desire to leave a community damaged by traders' rum, in 1754 the mature brothers John and Zachariah Tarbell were among the leaders of a migration of about 30 families to set up a new community about 20 leagues upriver along the St. Lawrence River. Father Pierre-Robert-Jean-Baptiste Billiard accompanied the migrants as their priest. French officials supported the move and new mission; they paid for construction of a sawmill
Sawmill
A sawmill is a facility where logs are cut into boards.-Sawmill process:A sawmill's basic operation is much like those of hundreds of years ago; a log enters on one end and dimensional lumber exits on the other end....
at the new community. With tensions increasing prior to the Seven Years' War
Seven Years' War
The Seven Years' War was a global military war between 1756 and 1763, involving most of the great powers of the time and affecting Europe, North America, Central America, the West African coast, India, and the Philippines...
(also known in North America as the French and Indian War
French and Indian War
The French and Indian War is the common American name for the war between Great Britain and France in North America from 1754 to 1763. In 1756, the war erupted into the world-wide conflict known as the Seven Years' War and thus came to be regarded as the North American theater of that war...
, the French wanted to keep the Mohawk away from English influence.
The Tarbells were of English descent from New England
New England
New England is a region in the northeastern corner of the United States consisting of the six states of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut...
. They had been taken captive as young boys from Groton
Groton, Massachusetts
Groton is a town located in northwestern Middlesex County, Massachusetts. The population was 10,646 at the 2010 census. It is home to two noted prep schools: Groton School, founded in 1884, and Lawrence Academy at Groton, founded in 1793. The historic town hosts the National Shepley Hill Horse...
, Massachusetts
Massachusetts
The Commonwealth of Massachusetts is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. It is bordered by Rhode Island and Connecticut to the south, New York to the west, and Vermont and New Hampshire to the north; at its east lies the Atlantic Ocean. As of the 2010...
on June 20, 1707, with their sister Sarah by Mohawk during Queen Anne's War
Queen Anne's War
Queen Anne's War , as the North American theater of the War of the Spanish Succession was known in the British colonies, was the second in a series of French and Indian Wars fought between France and England, later Great Britain, in North America for control of the continent. The War of the...
and "carried" 300 miles to Canada. Sarah was sold to/redeemed by a French family. A year later she was baptized as Catholic, renamed Marguerite, and entered the Congregation of Notre Dame
Congregation of Notre Dame
The Congregation of Notre Dame was founded in 1653 by Marguerite Bourgeoys in Montreal, Canada. This was one of the first non-cloistered communities. The community's motherhouse has continued to be based in Montreal...
, a teaching order founded in Montreal in 1653. Adopted by Kanien'kehá:ka families in Kahnawake, the two boys became thoroughly assimilated
Cultural assimilation
Cultural assimilation is a socio-political response to demographic multi-ethnicity that supports or promotes the assimilation of ethnic minorities into the dominant culture. The term assimilation is often used with regard to immigrants and various ethnic groups who have settled in a new land. New...
: being baptized as Catholic, learning the Mohawk language and ways, and being given Mohawk names. They each married daughters of Mohawk chiefs from the Kahnawake community, and reared their children in its traditions. Well-respected, they both became chiefs (as were some of their sons.) They did not return to New England until March 1739, when they visited some family with the help of a guide and translator. They sometimes traveled to present-day Albany, New York
Albany, New York
Albany is the capital city of the U.S. state of New York, the seat of Albany County, and the central city of New York's Capital District. Roughly north of New York City, Albany sits on the west bank of the Hudson River, about south of its confluence with the Mohawk River...
for better trading prices from the Dutch and English. With many descendants into contemporary times at Kahnawake and Akwesasne, the extended Tarbell family is one of the largest.
Starting in 1755, French-Canadian Jesuit priests founded the St. Regis Mission at Akwesasne, together with the group of converted Kanien'kehá:ka (also spelled Onkwehonwe) from Kahnawake. First they built a log and bark church, then a more formal log church. In 1795 the Mohawks completed construction of a stone church, which still stands. Named after the French priest
Priest
A priest is a person authorized to perform the sacred rites of a religion, especially as a mediatory agent between humans and deities. They also have the authority or power to administer religious rites; in particular, rites of sacrifice to, and propitiation of, a deity or deities...
Saint Jean-François Regis
John Francis Regis
John Francis Regis, also known as Saint Jean-François Régis, Saint François Régis, and St. Regis, , was a French priest of the Society of Jesus, recognized as a saint by the Roman Catholic Church....
, the mission was the source of the French name of the adjacent Saint Regis River, an island in the St. Lawrence River, and the nearby village. In New York, the name was later adopted to apply to the Saint Regis Indian Reservation. The villagers have since renamed their community Kana:takon (the village, in Mohawk).
After their victory in the Seven Years' War
Seven Years' War
The Seven Years' War was a global military war between 1756 and 1763, involving most of the great powers of the time and affecting Europe, North America, Central America, the West African coast, India, and the Philippines...
, the British took over Canada and New France east of the Mississippi River
Mississippi River
The Mississippi River is the largest river system in North America. Flowing entirely in the United States, this river rises in western Minnesota and meanders slowly southwards for to the Mississippi River Delta at the Gulf of Mexico. With its many tributaries, the Mississippi's watershed drains...
. They added to good relations with residents of Akwesasne, built through trading in the New York Colony, by allowing the Kanien'kehá:ka to continue to have Catholic priests at their mission.
At the time of the American Revolutionary War
American Revolutionary War
The American Revolutionary War , the American War of Independence, or simply the Revolutionary War, began as a war between the Kingdom of Great Britain and thirteen British colonies in North America, and ended in a global war between several European great powers.The war was the result of the...
, the Mohawk and three other Iroquois nations were allied with the British against the rebellious American colonists. Forced to cede most of their remaining lands in New York to the new government after the colonists' victory, the Iroquois nations migrated to Canada, where many settled at the Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation. Some Mohawk joined the growing community at Akwesasne. Under the Jay Treaty
Jay Treaty
Jay's Treaty, , also known as Jay's Treaty, The British Treaty, and the Treaty of London of 1794, was a treaty between the United States and Great Britain that is credited with averting war,, resolving issues remaining since the Treaty of Paris of 1783, which ended the American Revolution,, and...
, the Mohawk had rights to independently cross the borders of their old territory.
Battle of the Cedars
The Battle of the Cedars was a series of military confrontations, early in the American Revolutionary WarAmerican Revolutionary War
The American Revolutionary War , the American War of Independence, or simply the Revolutionary War, began as a war between the Kingdom of Great Britain and thirteen British colonies in North America, and ended in a global war between several European great powers.The war was the result of the...
, which involved limited combat. The actions took place between May 19 and 27, 1776, at and around Les Cèdres, Quebec
Les Cèdres, Quebec
Les Cèdres is a municipality located north of the Saint Lawrence River in the Montérégie of Quebec near Vaudreuil-Dorion. The population as of the Canada 2006 Census was 5,732.-Population:Population trend-Language:...
(located 28 miles/45 km west of Montreal), in the later stages of the American colonial invasion of Quebec
Invasion of Canada (1775)
The Invasion of Canada in 1775 was the first major military initiative by the newly formed Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. The objective of the campaign was to gain military control of the British Province of Quebec, and convince the French-speaking Canadiens to join the...
that began in September 1775. No casualties occurred.
Claude de Lorimier
Claude-Nicolas-Guillaume de Lorimier
Claude-Nicolas-Guillaume de Lorimier was a businessman, official and political figure in Lower Canada. He was also known as Guillaume, Chevalier de Lorimier, Major de Lorimier, and by the Iroquois name Teiohatekon....
, a British Indian agent from Montreal, traveled west to Oswegatchie
Ogdensburg, New York
Ogdensburg is a city in St. Lawrence County, New York, United States. The population was 11,128 at the 2010 census. In the late 18th century, European-American settlers named the community after American land owner and developer Samuel Ogden....
(Ogdensburg, New York), where there was a fort
Fort de La Présentation
In 1749, the French Sulpician priest, Abbé Picquet, built a mission fort, which he named Fort de La Présentation . It was also sometimes known as Fort La Galette. It was built at the confluence of the Oswegatchie River and the St Lawrence River in Canada...
garrisoned by a company of the 8th Regiment of Foot under the command of British Captain George Forster. De Lorimier proposed recruiting some Indians to launch an attack on Montreal, then held by the American Continental Army
Continental Army
The Continental Army was formed after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War by the colonies that became the United States of America. Established by a resolution of the Continental Congress on June 14, 1775, it was created to coordinate the military efforts of the Thirteen Colonies in...
, from the west. When Forster agreed, Lorimier went to Akwesasne, where he recruited 100 warriors for battle. The British-allied forces took some American prisoners during the encounters, but these were later freed.
In 1806 Catholic Cayuga, Oneida and Onondaga from Ogdensburg, St. Lawrence co., NY joined the St. Regis band.
20th century institutions
Kana:takon School, originally called the Saint Regis Village School, was run by the Catholic Sisters of Saint Anne until the 1970s. Today, the mission is still active and includes a rectory, the large stone church dating to 1795, and a cemetery.The Roman Catholic parish at Akwesasne falls under three diocese
Diocese
A diocese is the district or see under the supervision of a bishop. It is divided into parishes.An archdiocese is more significant than a diocese. An archdiocese is presided over by an archbishop whose see may have or had importance due to size or historical significance...
s because of international and provincial borders: the Diocese of Alexandria-Cornwall
Roman Catholic Diocese of Alexandria-Cornwall
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Alexandria–Cornwall is a Roman Catholic diocese that comprises the easternmost part of the Province of Ontario. The diocese was created by Pope Leo XIII on January 23, 1890. It has also previously operated under the name the Roman Catholic Diocese of Alexandria in...
, Diocese of Valleyfield
Roman Catholic Diocese of Valleyfield
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Valleyfield is a Catholic diocese in Quebec and a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Montreal. It was erected in 1892.-Ordinaries:*Joseph-Médard Émard *Felix-Raymond-Marie Rouleau O.P...
in Canada, and the Diocese of Ogdensburg in New York.
Communities, hamlets and villages in Akwesasne
The three main areas:- Kawehno:keCornwall Island (Ontario)Cornwall Island is an island in the Saint Lawrence River, directly south of the city of Cornwall. The island is located completely in Canada, but is also part of the Akwesasne Mohawk reserve that straddles the Canada – United States border border as well as the Quebec – Ontario border.- Illegal...
(Cornwall Island, Ontario) - Kana:takon (Saint Regis, Quebec
- Tsi:Snaine (Snye, Quebec or Chenail, Quebec)
Others:
- Raquette Point, New York
- RooseveltownRooseveltown, New YorkRooseveltown, New York is a hamlet in the town of Massena, New York, United States located in St. Lawrence County, New York. It is near the eastern town line by the Raquette River....
, New York (disputed) - HogansburgHogansburg, New YorkHogansburg is a hamlet in the St. Regis Mohawk Reservation, in Franklin County, in the town of Bombay in New York state, USA. It lies on NY 37 near the Canadian-US border at the confluence of the St. Regis River with the Saint Lawrence Seaway.-History:...
, New York - Frogtown, New York
- Pilon Island, Ontario
- Yellow Island, Quebec
- St. Regis Island, Quebec
- Sugarrbush Island, Quebec
- Outlying islands
Surrounding communities
To the southeast Akwesasne borders the towns of Fort CovingtonFort Covington, New York
Fort Covington is a town in Franklin County, New York, United States. The population was 1,645 at the 2000 census. The name derives from a War of 1812 fortification.The Town of Fort Covington is on the county's northern border.- History :...
, New York and Bombay
Bombay, New York
Bombay is a town in Franklin County, New York, United States. The population was 1,192 at the 2000 census. The town was named after a city in India, now known as Mumbai, by an early landowner whose wife was from Bombay....
, New York. Sections of the southeastern portion of Akwesasne are considered by the Town of Bombay to be within the town's jurisdiction. To the west is the Town of Massena, New York
Massena (town), New York
Massena is a town in St. Lawrence County, New York, United States. The town is on the northern border of the county and is nicknamed "The Gateway to the Fourth Coast". The population was 13,121 at the 2000 census. The town of Massena contains a village also called Massena...
.
Many islands in the St. Lawrence River are part of Akwesasne, so neighboring communities include http://www.akwesasne.ca/PDF/AkwesasneMap.pdf
- Lake Saint Francis and Salaberry de ValleyfieldSalaberry-de-Valleyfield, QuebecSalaberry-de-Valleyfield is a city in southwestern Quebec, in the Regional County Municipality of Beauharnois-Salaberry. The population as of the Canada 2006 Census was 39,672. Situated on an island in the Saint Lawrence River, it is bordered at its western end by Lake Saint Francis, with the Saint...
, Quebec - Township of Summerstown, Ontario
- City of CornwallCornwall, OntarioCornwall is a city in Eastern Ontario, Canada and the seat of the United Counties of Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry, Ontario. Cornwall is Ontario's easternmost city, located on the St...
, Ontario - South Stormont, Ontario
- Township of DundeeDundee, QuebecDundee is a township of Quebec, located within the Le Haut-Saint-Laurent Regional County Municipality in the Montérégie administrative region. The population as of the Canada 2006 Census was 436.-Population:Population trend-Language:...
, Quebec - Saint-AnicetSaint-Anicet, QuebecSaint-Anicet is a parish municipality of Quebec, located within the Le Haut-Saint-Laurent Regional County Municipality in the Montérégie administrative region...
, Quebec - Brockville, Ontario
- Village of MassenaMassena (town), New YorkMassena is a town in St. Lawrence County, New York, United States. The town is on the northern border of the county and is nicknamed "The Gateway to the Fourth Coast". The population was 13,121 at the 2000 census. The town of Massena contains a village also called Massena...
, New York - Alexandria BayAlexandria Bay, New YorkAlexandria Bay is a village in Jefferson County, New York, United States. The population was 1,080 at the 2010 census.The Village of Alexandria Bay is in the Town of Alexandria.Keewaydin State Park is southeast of the village...
, New York
Akwesasro:non have little contact with neighboring towns in Quebec. Partly this may be due to their being majority English-speaking in daily use (rather than French-speaking). Also, they are more oriented to the stronger economies of Cornwall, Ontario and Massena, New York.
Government
Akwesasne is governed by three bodies: the Mohawk Nation Council of Chiefs (traditional government), the elected Mohawk Council of Akwesasne in the North, and Saint Regis Mohawk Tribe in the South.Mohawk Nation Council of Chiefs
The Mohawk Nation Council of Chiefs (MNCC, colloquially "the Longhouse") is the traditional governing and religious body of the Mohawk (Kahniakehaka) people. The MNCC operates as a member nation of the Iroquois ConfederacyIroquois
The Iroquois , also known as the Haudenosaunee or the "People of the Longhouse", are an association of several tribes of indigenous people of North America...
or Haudenosaunee.
Mohawk Council of Akwesasne
The Mohawk Council of Akwesasne (MCA) is a government whose representatives are elected within the northern districts of the territory claimed by CanadaCanada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
. The MCA was developed from the Indian Bands system introduced by the Indian Act of Canada
Indian Act
The Indian Act , R.S., 1951, c. I-5, is a Canadian statute that concerns registered Indians, their bands, and the system of Indian reserves...
and the Act's historical and legal predecessors. They are known to Canada as Mohawks of Akwesasne Bands 59 and 15.
The MCA operates as a non-partisan
Non-partisan democracy
Nonpartisan democracy is a system of representative government or organization such that universal and periodic elections take place without reference to political parties.-Overview:...
, representative democracy
Representative democracy
Representative democracy is a form of government founded on the principle of elected individuals representing the people, as opposed to autocracy and direct democracy...
divided into three geographic and administrative districts. The districts are Kana:takon (Saint Regis, Quebec), Kawehno:ke (Cornwall Island, Ontario) and Tsi:Snaihne (Snye, Quebec). The several islands of the St. Lawrence River within the jurisdiction of the Mohawk Council of Akwesasne are generally counted as being a part of the nearest mainland.
General elections are held triannually, with 12 representatives (Chiefs) chosen from the districts and one Grand Chief. Each district elects four Chiefs, and all districts vote to elect a Grand Chief; making a council of 12 plus 1. A by-election
By-election
A by-election is an election held to fill a political office that has become vacant between regularly scheduled elections....
may also be held if one or more of the seats become vacant.
Chiefs of the Mohawk Council of Akwesasne
Grand Chief- Michael William Mitchell
Kana:takon District Chiefs
- Lawrence King
- Agatha Florance Phillips
- Julie Phillips-Jacobs
- Rachel Roundpoint
Tsi:Snaihne District Chiefs
- John Adams
- Joseph Lazore
- Karen Loran
- William Sunday
Kawehno:ke District Chiefs
- Abram Howard Benedict
- Wesley Benedict
- Brian William David
- Cheryl Jacobs
List accurate as of 27 June 2009 MCA election.
Saint Regis Mohawk Tribe
The St. Regis Mohawk Tribe (SRMT) is a government elected by residents of the St. Regis Mohawk Reservation, a southern district of the territory claimed by the United StatesUnited States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
. The SRMT operates as a Constitutional republic
Constitutional republic
A constitutional republic is a state in which the head of state and other officials are representatives of the people and must govern according to existing constitutional law that limits the government's power over all of its citizens...
.
Chiefs of the Saint Regis Mohawk Tribe
- Chief Mark Garrow
- Chief Monica Jacobs
- Chief Randy Hart
- Sub-Chief Stacy Adams
- Sub-Chief Pamela Brown
- Sub-Chief Shelley Jacobs
Governance: Canada and the United States
In 1960 First NationsFirst Nations
First Nations is a term that collectively refers to various Aboriginal peoples in Canada who are neither Inuit nor Métis. There are currently over 630 recognised First Nations governments or bands spread across Canada, roughly half of which are in the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia. The...
people were enfranchised in Canada. In 1985 Status Indians who voted in a Canadian election were allowed to retain their status. Previously they would have become non-Status, as per the Indian Act
Indian Act
The Indian Act , R.S., 1951, c. I-5, is a Canadian statute that concerns registered Indians, their bands, and the system of Indian reserves...
. It is uncertain how many Akwesasro:non participate in Canadian elections.
Akwesasne is currently represented in Canada's Parliament
Parliament of Canada
The Parliament of Canada is the federal legislative branch of Canada, seated at Parliament Hill in the national capital, Ottawa. Formally, the body consists of the Canadian monarch—represented by her governor general—the Senate, and the House of Commons, each element having its own officers and...
by:
- Anne Minh-Thu QuachAnne Minh-Thu QuachAnne Minh-Thu Quach, MP is a Canadian politician, who was elected to the Canadian House of Commons in the 2011 election. She represents the electoral district of Beauharnois—Salaberry as a member of the New Democratic Party.She has taught French in a high school there for six years...
-New Democratic PartyNew Democratic PartyThe New Democratic Party , commonly referred to as the NDP, is a federal social-democratic political party in Canada. The interim leader of the NDP is Nycole Turmel who was appointed to the position due to the illness of Jack Layton, who died on August 22, 2011. The provincial wings of the NDP in...
(Beauharnois-SalaberryBeauharnois—SalaberryBeauharnois—Salaberry is a federal electoral district in Quebec, Canada, that has been represented in the Canadian House of Commons since 1949.-Geography:...
, Quebec) - Guy LauzonGuy LauzonGuy Lauzon is a Canadian politician. He is a current member of the Canadian House of Commons, representing the riding of Stormont—Dundas—South Glengarry as a Conservative. He was born in St...
-Conservative (Stormont-Dundas-South GlengarryStormont—Dundas—South GlengarryStormont—Dundas—South Glengarry is a federal electoral district in Ontario, Canada, that has been represented in the Canadian House of Commons since 2004.Its population in 2001 was 98,933.-Geography:...
, Ontario)
In 1924 Native Americans were enfranchised in the United States if they had not been previously by giving up memberships in tribes; for instance, during Indian Removal of the 1830s, some Native Americans chose to stay in historic territories of the South and become state and federal citizens.
Akwesasne is represented in the United States Congress
United States Congress
The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C....
by:
- Senator Charles SchumerCharles SchumerCharles Ellis "Chuck" Schumer is the senior United States Senator from New York and a member of the Democratic Party. First elected in 1998, he defeated three-term Republican incumbent Al D'Amato by a margin of 55%–44%. He was easily re-elected in 2004 by a margin of 71%–24% and in 2010 by a...
(D- NY) - Senator Kirsten GillibrandKirsten GillibrandKirsten Elizabeth Rutnik Gillibrand is an attorney and the junior United States Senator from the state of New York and a member of the Democratic Party...
(D- NY) - Representative: Bill Owens (D)
Education
Akwesasne has five elementary schools on the territory. Three schools are under the direction of the Ahkwesahsne Mohawk Board of Education:- Akwesasne Mohawk School K-4, K-5 grades 3,4,5,6
- Kana:takon School K-4, K-5, grades 7, 8
- Tsi:Snaihne School grades 1, 2 in the English program, and pre-kindergarten to grade 5 in the Kanien'kehá:ka Immersion Program
One school is under the direction of the Salmon River Central School District:
- St. Regis Mohawk School Pre-K to grade 6
One school is run independently:
- Akwesasne Freedom School, Pre-K to grade 8, featuring Kanien'kehá immersion to strengthen language and culture on the reserve. With children learning Kanien'kehá, many parents and other adults are now taking language classes, too. The Akwesasne model of language and cultural revival is being followed by other communities.
Generally, Akwesasnro:non travel off the territory for secondary education.
Post-secondary education is offered on the territory through Iohahiio Adult Education and State University of New York
State University of New York
The State University of New York, abbreviated SUNY , is a system of public institutions of higher education in New York, United States. It is the largest comprehensive system of universities, colleges, and community colleges in the United States, with a total enrollment of 465,000 students, plus...
(SUNY) extension programs with the SRMT.
Radio
97.3 CKON-FMCKON-FM
CKON-FM is a radio station located in Akwesasne, a Mohawk nation territory that straddles the Canada-United States border ....
community radio station. First went on air on September 29, 1984. CKON is owned and operated by the Akwesasne Communication Society, a community-based non-profit group. It has a country music
Country music
Country music is a popular American musical style that began in the rural Southern United States in the 1920s. It takes its roots from Western cowboy and folk music...
format
Radio format
A radio format or programming format not to be confused with broadcast programming describes the overall content broadcast on a radio station. Radio formats are frequently employed as a marketing tool, and constantly evolve...
, but also has adult contemporary music
Adult contemporary music
Adult contemporary music is a broad style of popular music that ranges from lush 1950s and 1960s vocal music to predominantly ballad-heavy music with varying degrees of rock influence, as well as a radio format that plays such music....
during evenings, a free format on Fridays and oldies
Oldies
Oldies is a term commonly used to describe a radio format that concentrates on music from a period of about 15 to 55 years before the present day....
on Sundays.
CKON also broadcasts coverage
Broadcasting of sports events
The broadcasting of sports events is the coverage of sports as a television program, on radio and other broadcasting media. It usually involves one or more sports commentators describing the events as they happen.-United States:...
of home and away games of Cornwall Colts
Cornwall Colts
The Cornwall Colts are a Canadian Junior ice hockey team from Cornwall, Ontario, Canada. They are a part of the Central Canada Hockey League. Before 1992, they were known as the Massena Americans, and moved to Cornwall in 1992 when the Cornwall Royals were sold and moved away from the...
and Akwesasne Wolves
Akwesasne Wolves
The Akwesasne Wolves are a Junior ice hockey team based out of Cornwall Island, Ontario. They play out of the Eastern Ontario Junior Hockey League.-Season-by-season results:-External links:**...
hockey teams and of the Akwesasne Lightning
Akwesasne Lightning
The Akwesasne Lightning are Junior "B" box lacrosse team from Akwesasne . The Lightning play in the OLA Junior B Lacrosse League.-History:...
lacrosse team.
Attractions
- Akwesasne Mohawk CasinoAkwesasne Mohawk CasinoThe Akwesasne Mohawk Casino is a Native American gambling enterprise run by the Mohawk Nation in Hogansburg, New York. It has for 1,600 slot machines and 19 table games....
- Akwesasne Cultural CenterAkwesasne Cultural CenterThe Akwsasne Cultural Center houses a library and museum about the Mohawk Nation community of Akwesasne. The museum houses 2,000 photographic objects and over 700 ethnographic objects, of which over 300 are baskets. Black ash splint and sweetgrass basketry is part of the Akwesasne Mohawk...
- Ronathahon:ni Cultural Centre - formerly known as the Native North American Traveling College http://www.ronathahonni.com/
- Mohawk International Raceway - formerly known as Frogtown International Speedway; a dirt track racingDirt track racingDirt track racing is a type of auto racing performed on oval tracks. It began in the United States before World War I and became widespread during the 1920s and 30s. Two different types of racecars predominated—open wheel racers in the Northeast and West and stock cars in the South...
oval and host of outdoor concerts. - Akwesasne Annual International Pow-wowPow-wowA pow-wow is a gathering of North America's Native people. The word derives from the Narragansett word powwaw, meaning "spiritual leader". A modern pow-wow is a specific type of event where both Native American and non-Native American people meet to dance, sing, socialize, and honor American...
- Strawberry Music Festival
- Annual Akwesasne Winter Carnival
1969 border crossing dispute
In the winter of 1969 Cornwall City Police were confronted by a demonstration by Akwesasro:non at the North Channel Bridge of what is now called the Three Nations Crossing. By blocking traffic on the bridge, Akwesasro:non sought to call attention to their grievance that they were prohibited by Canadian authorities from duty-free passage of personal purchases across the border, a right they claimed was established by the 1794 Jay TreatyJay Treaty
Jay's Treaty, , also known as Jay's Treaty, The British Treaty, and the Treaty of London of 1794, was a treaty between the United States and Great Britain that is credited with averting war,, resolving issues remaining since the Treaty of Paris of 1783, which ended the American Revolution,, and...
A film featuring the events of that confrontation, called You Are on Indian Land
You Are on Indian Land
You Are on Indian Land is a 1969 documentary film about the confrontation between police and a demonstration by Mohawks of the St. Regis Reservation on a bridge between Canada and the United States near Cornwall, Ontario that stands on Mohawk land...
, was produced by the National Film Board of Canada
National Film Board of Canada
The National Film Board of Canada is Canada's twelve-time Academy Award-winning public film producer and distributor. An agency of the Government of Canada, the NFB produces and distributes documentary, animation, alternative drama and digital media productions...
.
2001 "anti-globalization" direct action
The NYC Ya Basta CollectiveNYC Ya Basta Collective
The NYC Ya Basta Collective was a group of anti-globalization activists, based primarily in NYC, active from roughly October, 2000 through October, 2001....
was a group of anti-globalization
Anti-globalization
Criticism of globalization is skepticism of the claimed benefits of the globalization of capitalism. Many of these views are held by the anti-globalization movement however other groups also are critical of the policies of globalization....
activists, based primarily in New York City, active from roughly October 2000 through October 2001.
Initiated in October 2000 by L. Fantoni and T.F.G. Casper on the heels of the anti-International Monetary Fund
International Monetary Fund
The International Monetary Fund is an organization of 187 countries, working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world...
/World Bank
World Bank
The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans to developing countries for capital programmes.The World Bank's official goal is the reduction of poverty...
protests in Prague
Prague
Prague is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic. Situated in the north-west of the country on the Vltava river, the city is home to about 1.3 million people, while its metropolitan area is estimated to have a population of over 2.3 million...
, a collective soon formed and developed its own variation of the Tute Bianche
Tute Bianche
Tute Bianche was a militant Italian social movement, active from 1994 to 2001.Activists covered their bodies with padding so as to resist the blows of police, to push through police lines, and to march together in large blocks for mutual protection during demonstrations.-Name:Tute Bianche means,...
tactic of the padded bloc
Padded bloc
A padded bloc is a form of protest in which people march in a block formation and wear padding to protect against the police, following the Tute Bianche movement....
. The collective organized several actions and events highlighting the inadequacy of borders, in support of immigrant rights and against racism
Racism
Racism is the belief that inherent different traits in human racial groups justify discrimination. In the modern English language, the term "racism" is used predominantly as a pejorative epithet. It is applied especially to the practice or advocacy of racial discrimination of a pernicious nature...
and racialist hate groups.
In April 2001, this collective, along with the Direct Action Network
Direct Action Network
Direct Action Network was a confederation of anarchist and anti-authoritarian affinity groups, collectives, and organizations that was formed to coordinate the direct action portion of anti-WTO mobilization in Seattle in 1999....
, was active in organizing a US / Canada border crossing over the Three Nations Crossing. This event preceded demonstrations surrounding the 3rd Summit of the Americas, a summit
Summit (meeting)
A summit meeting is a meeting of heads of state or government, usually with considerable media exposure, tight security and a prearranged agenda.Notable summit meetings include those of Franklin D...
held in Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
. An estimated 500 anti-globalists, along with a few Akwesasro:non, challenged the legitimacy of the US/Canadian border. Although the Collective successfully and peacefully crossed into Cornwall, Ontario, Canada, they never made it to Quebec City.
2009 border crossing dispute
On 1 June 2009, Canada Border Services AgencyCanada Border Services Agency
The Canada Border Services Agency is a federal law enforcement agency that is responsible for border enforcement, immigration enforcement and customs services....
(CBSA) border services officers at the Cornwall Port of Entry walked off the job in response to encampments of Akwesasro:non across the road from the customs facility. The latter were protesting Canada's arming of CBSA border services officers. The encampment, styled as a "unity rally", was branded as a campaign to bring awareness to complaints of alleged Human Rights
Human rights
Human rights are "commonly understood as inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being." Human rights are thus conceived as universal and egalitarian . These rights may exist as natural rights or as legal rights, in both national...
abuses committed against Akwesasro:non by the CBSA border services officers.
The protest continued for several days but reached its peak at midnight of 1 June, when the new policy of arming border services officers with Beretta Px4 Storm
Beretta Px4 Storm
The Beretta Px4 Storm is a semi-automatic pistol manufactured by Beretta of Italy and intended for personal defense and law enforcement use. The Px4 uses the same short-recoil, rotating barrel lock as the Beretta 8000 Models and uses the same operating system as the M9/92/96 series, while being...
sidearms went into effect. The border services officers left at the end of their shift. A new shift did not arrive, leaving the port of entry vacant.
Cornwall City Police blockaded the north terminus of the Three Nations Bridge to deny travelers entry into Canada. At the request of Canada, the New York State Police
New York State Police
The New York State Police is the state police force of over 4,600 sworn Troopers for the state of New York. It was established on April 11, 1917 by the New York Legislature, in response to the 1913 murder of a construction foreman named Sam Howell in Westchester County, which at that time did not...
likewise blocked access from the United States onto the bridge. Akwesasne was cut off from its major access point into Canada and from free travel within the territory until a temporary border post was erected on July 13, 2009.
Police, border patrol, state troopers, RCMP, and various government agents blocked the road leading to the homes on Cornwall Island, Ontario, from May 2009 until July 2009 ( enter exact dates here ). Each time Mohawks attempted to leave their homes or return to their homes in Akwesasne, they were interrogated by government agents. Some Mohawks moved out of their homes citing stress from this situation. Other residents were ordered to pay costs of $1000 each time CBSA agents chose to impound their vehicles, sometimes more than once per day where residents needed to use their vehicles for several trips. Some residents traveled instead by boat to seek medical attention, purchase water, and groceries. Videos, stories, and pictures showing the roads being blocked and documenting allegations of harassment were recorded daily. They can be found online at http://www.YouTube.com/monigarr.
History of disputes
The area has been the scene of several disputes on the rights of the residents to cross the border unimpeded. These issues have been a concern for Canadian authorities, as the area is alleged to be a large-scale, cigarette-smuggling route from the U.S. There have been arrests and seizure of goods in the past.In addition, there have been internal issues, with residents of Akwesasne divided as to which council (elected or traditional) they support. Political rivalries were expressed as one group brought gambling onto the reserve, bringing huge returns to casino owners. In 1989 unidentified suspects threw firebombs at a chartered bus. In a separate incident, someone used a shotgun to fire at a bus in the customs area.
The political feuds have led to outright violence, with two Mohawk men killed at Akwesasne in 1990 and thousands of residents leaving their homes because of attacks on houses and vehicles, and general unrest. The Warrior Society, a self-appointed security force, used assault rifles and bats to break up anti-gambling roadblocks at the reservation entrances. They threatened to shoot any outside law enforcement officials if they entered the reservation.
See also
- GanienkehGanienkehGanienkeh, which translates from Mohawk into Land of the Flint, is a Mohawk community located on about near Altona, New York in the far northeast corner of Upper New York State. It is a rare case of an indigenous people reclaiming land from the United States.-History:In May 1974 Traditionalist...
- Kanesatake
- Kahnawake
- TyendinagaTyendinaga Mohawk Territory, OntarioTyendinaga Mohawk Territory is an 73 km² Mohawk First Nations reserve on the Bay of Quinte in southeastern Ontario, Canada, east of Belleville and immediately to the west of Deseronto...
- WahtaWahta Mohawk Territory, OntarioWahta Mohawk Territory is a Mohawk First Nation reserve in the District Municipality of Muskoka, Ontario, Canada. It is bounded on the west by Highway 400, a major north-south artery in the province...
- Haudenosaunee
- Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous PeoplesDeclaration on the Rights of Indigenous PeoplesThe United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly during its 62nd session at UN Headquarters in New York City on 13 September 2007....
- Indian ActIndian ActThe Indian Act , R.S., 1951, c. I-5, is a Canadian statute that concerns registered Indians, their bands, and the system of Indian reserves...