Ainu language

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Ainu language

Hokkaido Ainu (Ainu: , aynu itak; Japanese

Japanese language

IPA: [n?iho?go] is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities. It is related to the Ryukyuan languages....
: ainu-go; Cyrillic alphabet

Cyrillic alphabet

The Cyrillic alphabet is a family of alphabets, subsets of which are used by five Slavic languages national languages as well as non-Slavic . It is also used by many other languages of Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, Siberia and other languages in the past....
: ???? ????) is an Ainu language

Ainu languages

The Ainu languages were a small language family spoken on the northern Japanese island of Hokkaido, the southern half of the island of Sakhalin, and the Kuril Islands, an island chain that stretches from Hokkaido to the southern tip of the Kamchatka Peninsula....
spoken by members of the Ainu

Ainu people

are an ethnic group indigenous peoples to Hokkaido, the Kuril Islands, and much of Sakhalin. There are most likely over 150,000 Ainu today; however the exact figure is not known as many Ainu hide their origin due to Ethnic issues in Japan....
ethnic group

Ethnic group

An ethnic group is a group of humans whose members identify with each other, through a common heritage that is real or presumed.Ethnic identity is further marked by the recognition from others of a group's distinctiveness and the recognition of common culture, linguistic, religion, human behaviour or Race traits, real or presumed, as indic...
on the northern Japanese island of Hokkaido

Hokkaido

, formerly known as Ezo, Yezo, Yeso, or Yesso, is Japan's second largest island and the largest, northernmost of its 47 prefectures of Japan....
.

Until the twentieth century, Ainu languages were also spoken throughout the southern half of the island of Sakhalin

Sakhalin

Sakhalin , also Saghalien, is a large elongated island in the North Pacific, lying between 45?50' and 54?24' N. It is part of Russia and is its largest island, administered as part of Sakhalin Oblast....
and by small numbers of people in the Kuril Islands

Kuril Islands

The Kuril Islands or Kurile Islands in Russia's Sakhalin Oblast region, is a volcanic archipelago that stretches approximately 1,300 km northeast from Hokkaido, Japan, to Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia, separating the Sea of Okhotsk from the North Pacific Ocean....
. All but the Hokkaido language are extinct, and Hokkaido is moribund, though there are ongoing attempts to revive it.

Ainu has no generally accepted genealogical relationship to any other language family.

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Encyclopedia

Hokkaido Ainu (Ainu: , aynu itak; Japanese

Japanese language

IPA: [n?iho?go] is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities. It is related to the Ryukyuan languages....
: ainu-go; Cyrillic alphabet

Cyrillic alphabet

Ainu languages

Ainu people

Ethnic group

Hokkaido

Sakhalin

Kuril Islands

Ainu languages

Speakers

Ainu is a moribund language

Endangered language

An endangered language is a language that is at risk of falling out of use, generally because it has few surviving speakers. If it loses all of its native speakers, it becomes an extinct language....
, and has been endangered for at least the past few decades. Most of the 150,000 ethnic Ainu

Ainu people

Nibutani

The Nibutani , Niputay in Ainu language, district is part of the town of Biratori, Hokkaido in Hokkaido, Japan, a particularly large proportion of the population of which is of the indigenous Ainu people ethnicity....
(part of Biratori, Hokkaido

Biratori, Hokkaido

is a town located in Saru District, Hokkaido, Hidaka Subprefecture, Hokkaido Prefecture, Japan.As of 2008, the town has an estimated population of 5,909 and a population density of 7.95 persons per km?....
) where many of the remaining native speakers live, there are 100 speakers, out of which only 15 used the language every day in the late 1980s. The number of speakers today (by whatever definition one may use) is not known with any certainty. In all of Hokkaido, it is estimated that there are perhaps 1,000 native speaker

Native Speaker

Native Speaker is Chang-Rae Lee?s first novel. In Native Speaker, he creates a man named Henry Park who tries to assimilate into American society and become a ?native speaker.?...
s, almost all older than 30. Among Ainu speakers (broadly defined), second-language learners presently outnumber native ones.

However, use of the language is on the rise. There is currently an active movement to revitalize the language — mainly in Hokkaido but also elsewhere — to reverse the centuries-long decline in the number of speakers. This has led to an increasing number of second-language learners, especially in Hokkaido, in large part due to the pioneering efforts of the late Ainu folklorist, activist and former Diet member Shigeru Kayano

Shigeru Kayano

was one of the last native speakers of Ainu language and a leading figure in the Ainu people ethnic movement in Japan....
, himself a native speaker.

Phonology

Ainu syllable

Syllable

A syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of Speech communication sounds. For example, the word water is composed of two syllables: wa and ter....
s are CV(C) (that is, they have an obligatory syllable onset

Syllable onset

In phonetics and phonology, a syllable onset is the part of a syllable that precedes the syllable nucleus....
and an optional syllable coda

Syllable coda

In phonology, a syllable coda comprises the consonant sounds of a syllable that follow the syllable nucleus, which is usually a vowel. The combination of a nucleus and a coda is called a syllable rime....
) and there are few consonant cluster

Consonant cluster

In linguistics, a consonant cluster is a group of consonants which have no intervening vowel. In English, for example, the groups and are consonant clusters in the word splits....
s.

There are five vowel

Vowel

In phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, such as English ah! or oh! , pronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis....
s:

The vowels of Ainu
	Front Front vowel A front vowel is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a front vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far forward as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant....	Central Central vowel A central vowel is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a central vowel is that the tongue is positioned halfway between a front vowel and a back vowel....	Back Back vowel A back vowel is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a back vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far back as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant....
Close Close vowel A close vowel is a type of vowel sound used in many spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a close vowel is that the tongue is positioned as close as possible to the roof of the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant....	i		u
Mid Mid vowel A mid vowel is a vowel sound used in some spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a mid vowel is that the tongue is positioned mid-way between an open vowel and a close vowel....	e		o
Open Open vowel An open vowel is a vowel sound of a type used in most spoken languages. The defining characteristic of an open vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far as possible from the roof of the mouth....		a

Consonant

In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the upper vocal tract, the upper vocal tract being defined as that part of the vocal tract that lies above the larynx....
s:

The consonants of Ainu
	Bilabial Bilabial consonant In phonetics, a bilabial consonant is a consonant articulated with both lips. The bilabial consonants identified by the International Phonetic Alphabet are:...	Labio- Labiovelar consonant The term labiovelar is ambiguous. It may mean Labial-velar consonant , or it may mean labialization velar consonant .When the manner of articulation is a stop consonant, nasal consonant, or fricative consonant, these are quite different.... velar Labiovelar consonant The term labiovelar is ambiguous. It may mean Labial-velar consonant , or it may mean labialization velar consonant .When the manner of articulation is a stop consonant, nasal consonant, or fricative consonant, these are quite different....	Alveolar Alveolar consonant Alveolar consonants are articulated with the tongue against or close to the superior alveolar ridge, which is called that because it contains the Dental alveolus of the superior teeth....	Palatal Palatal consonant Palatal consonants are consonants articulated with the body of the tongue raised against the hard palate . Consonants with the tip of the tongue curled back against the palate are called retroflex consonant....	Velar Velar consonant Velars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue against the soft palate, the back part of the roof of the mouth, known also as the Soft palate)....	Glottal Glottal consonant Glottal consonants are consonants articulated with the glottis. Many phoneticians consider them, or at least the so-called fricatives, to be transitional states of the glottis without a point of articulation as other consonants have; in fact, some do not consider them to be consonants at all....
Stop Stop consonant A stop, plosive, or occlusive is a consonant sound produced by stopping the airflow in the vocal tract. The terms plosive and stop are usually used interchangeably, but they are not perfect synonyms....
Affricate Affricate consonant Affricate consonants begin as stop consonants but release as a fricative consonant rather than directly into the following vowel....
Nasal Nasal consonant A nasal consonant is produced with a lowered soft palate in the mouth, allowing air to escape freely through the nose. The oral cavity still acts as a resonance chamber for the sound, but the air does not escape through the mouth as it is blocked by the tongue....
Fricative Fricative consonant Fricatives are consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two Place of articulation close together. These may be the lower lip against the upper teeth, in the case of ; the back of the tongue against the soft palate, in the case of German language , the final consonant of Bach; or the side of the tongue ag...
Approximant Approximant consonant Approximants are speech sounds that could be regarded as intermediate between vowels and "typical" consonants. In the articulation of approximants, articulatory organs produce a narrowing of the vocal tract, but leave enough space for air to flow without much audible turbulence....
Tap/flap Flap consonant In phonetics, a flap or tap is a type of consonantal sound, which is produced with a single contraction of the muscles so that one articulator is thrown against another....

The glottal stop only occurs at the beginning of words, before an accented vowel. The sequence is realized as and becomes before and at the end of syllables. The affricate has voiced and post-alveolar variants. There is some variation among dialects; in the Sakhalin

Sakhalin

Lenition

Lenition is a kind of consonant mutation that appears in many languages. Along with assimilation , it is one of the primary sources of historical linguistics of languages....
and merged into . After an , this is pronounced as .

There is a pitch accent

Pitch accent

Pitch accent is a linguistics term of convenience for a variety of restricted tone systems that use variations in Pitch to give prominence to a syllable or Mora_ within a word....
system. The accentuation of specific words varies somewhat from dialect to dialect. Generally, words including affix

Affix

An affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word. Affixes may be derivation , like English -ness and pre-, or inflectional, like English plural -s and past tense -ed....
es have a high pitch on the stem, or on the first syllable if it is closed or has a diphthong, while other words have the high pitch on the second syllable, although there are exceptions to this generalization.

Typology and grammar

Ainu is SOV

Subject Object Verb

In linguistic typology, Subject Object Verb is the type of languages in which the subject , object , and verb of a sentence appear or usually appear in that order....
, with postpositions. Subject and object are usually marked with postpositions. Nouns can cluster to modify one another; the head comes at the end. Verbs, which are inherently either transitive or intransitive, accept various derivational affixes

Derivation (linguistics)

In linguistics, derivation is "Used to form new words, as with happi-ness and un-happy from happy, or determination from determine....
.

Typologically

Linguistic typology

Linguistic typology is a subfield of linguistics that studies and classifies languages according to their structural features. Its aim is to describe and explain the structural diversity of the world's languages....
, Ainu is similar in word order (and some aspects of phonology) to Japanese

Japanese language

IPA: [n?iho?go] is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities. It is related to the Ryukyuan languages....
and Korean

Korean language

Korean is the official language of North Korea and South Korea. It is also one of the two official languages in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in People's Republic of China....
, while its high degree of synthesis

Synthetic language

A synthetic language, in linguistic typology, is a language with a high morpheme-per-word ratio. This linguistic classification is largely independent of morpheme-usage classifications , although there is a common tendency for agglutinative languages to exhibit synthetic properties....
is more reminiscent of languages to its north and east.

Ainu traditionally featured incorporation

Incorporation (linguistics)

Incorporation is a phenomenon by which a word, usually a verb, forms a kind of compound with, for instance, its direct object or adverbial modifier, while retaining its original syntax function....
of nouns and adverbs; this is rare in the modern colloquial language.

Applicatives

Applicative voice

The applicative voice is a grammatical voice which promotes an oblique case argument of a verb to the Patient argument, and indicates the oblique role within the meaning of the verb....
may be used in Ainu to place nouns in the dative

Dative case

The dative case is a grammatical case generally used to indicate the noun to whom something is given. For example, in "John gave a book to Mary"....
, instrumental

Instrumental case

The instrumental case is a grammatical case used to indicate that a noun is the instrument or means by or with which the subject achieves or accomplishes an action....
, comitative

Comitative case

The comitative case, also known as the associative case, is a grammatical case that denotes companionship, and is used where English would use "in company with" or "together with"....
, locative

Locative case

Locative is a grammatical case which indicates a location. It corresponds vaguely to the English prepositions "in", "on", "at", and "by". The locative case belongs to the general local cases together with the lative case and separative case case....
, allative

Allative case

Allative case is a type of the Locative case used in several languages. The term allative is generally used for the lative case in the majority of languages which do not make finer distinctions....
, or ablative

Ablative case

In linguistics, ablative case is a name given to grammatical case in various languages whose common characteristic is that they mark motion away from something, though the details in each language may differ....
roles. Besides freestanding nouns, these roles may be assigned to incorporated nouns, and such use of applicatives is in fact mandatory for incorporating oblique

Oblique case

An oblique case in linguistics is a noun case of synthetic languages that is used generally when a noun is the object of a sentence or a preposition....
nouns. Like incorporation, applicatives have grown less common in the modern language.

Ainu has a closed class of plural verbs, and some of these are suppletive.

Writing

Officially, the Ainu language is written in a modified version of the Japanese

Japanese language

IPA: [n?iho?go] is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities. It is related to the Ryukyuan languages....
katakana

Katakana

Latin alphabet

The Latin alphabet, also called the Roman alphabet, is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world today. It evolved from the western variety of the Greek alphabet called the Cumae alphabet, and was initially developed by the Ancient Romes to write the Latin....
-based alphabet in use. The Ainu Times
Ainu Times

The Ainu Times is the only newspaper published in the Ainu language. It uses both special katakana and romanizations in its articles. Its current editor is Takashi Hamada....
publishes in both. In the Latin orthography, is spelt c and as y; , which only occurs initially before accented vowels, is not written. Other phonemes use the same character as the IPA transcription given above. An equals sign (=) is used to mark morpheme

Morpheme

In morpheme-based morphology, a is the smallest linguistic unit that has semantics Meaning .In spoken language, morphemes are composed of phonemes , and in written language morphemes are composed of graphemes ....
boundaries, such as after a prefix. Its pitch accent is denoted by acute accent

Acute accent

The acute accent is a diacritic mark used in many modern written languages with alphabets based on the Latin alphabet, Cyrillic alphabet and Greek alphabet writing systems....
in Latin (e.g. á). This is usually not denoted in katakana.

Special katakana for the Ainu language

A Unicode

Unicode

Unicode is a computing industry standard allowing computers to consistently represent and manipulate Character expressed in most of the world's writing systems....
standard exists for a set of extended katakana

Katakana

is a Japanese language syllabary, one component of the Japanese writing system along with hiragana, kanji, and in some cases the Latin alphabet. The word katakana means "fragmentary kana", as the katakana scripts are derived from components of more complex kanji....
(Katakana Phonetic Extensions) for transliterating the Ainu language and other languages written with katakana., These characters are used to write final consonants and sounds that cannot be expressed using conventional katakana. The extended katakana are based on regular katakana and are either smaller in size, or feature a dakuten

Dakuten

, colloquially ten-ten , is a diacritic sign most often used in the Japanese language kana syllabaries to indicate that the consonant of a syllable should be pronounced voiced consonant....
or handakuten. As few fonts yet support these extensions, workarounds exist for many of the characters, such as the small katakana ku used as in ? (Aynu itak).

This is a list of special katakana used in transcribing the Ainu language. Most of the characters are of the extended set of katakana, though a few have been used historically in Japanese, and thus are part of the main set of katakana. A number of previously proposed characters have been removed from future Unicode implementations as they can be easily displayed as a combination of two existing characters.

Character	Unicode	Appearance	Name	Ainu usage
?	31F0	?	Katakana Letter Small Ku	Final Syllable coda In phonology, a syllable coda comprises the consonant sounds of a syllable that follow the syllable nucleus, which is usually a vowel. The combination of a nucleus and a coda is called a syllable rime.... k
?	31F1	?	Katakana Letter Small Si	s
?	31F2	?	Katakana Letter Small Su	s, used to emphasize it's pronounced rather than normal . and are allophone Allophone In phonetics, an allophone is one of several similar speech sounds that belong to the same phoneme. A phoneme is an abstract unit of speech sound that can distinguish words: That is, changing a phoneme in a word can produce another word.... s in Ainu.
?	31F3	?	Katakana Letter Small To	Final t
?	31F4	?	Katakana Letter Small Nu	Final n
?	31F5	?	Katakana Letter Small Ha	h , succeeding the vowel a. (e.g. ?? ah) Sakhalin dialect only.
?	31F6	?	Katakana Letter Small Hi	h , succeeding the vowel i. (e.g. ?? ih) Sakhalin dialect only.
?	31F7	?	Katakana Letter Small Hu	h , succeeding the vowel u. (e.g. ?? uh) Sakhalin dialect only.
?	31F8	?	Katakana Letter Small He	h , succeeding the vowel e. (e.g. ?? eh) Sakhalin dialect only.
?	31F9	?	Katakana Letter Small Ho	h , succeeding the vowel o. (e.g. ?? oh) Sakhalin dialect only.
?	31FA	?	Katakana Letter Small Mu	Final m
?	31FB	?	Katakana Letter Small Ra	r , succeeding the vowel a. (e.g. ?? ar)
?	31FC	?	Katakana Letter Small Ri	r , succeeding the vowel i. (e.g. ?? ir)
?	31FD	?	Katakana Letter Small Ru	r , succeeding the vowel u. (e.g. ?? ur)
?	31FE	?	Katakana Letter Small Re	r , succeeding the vowel e. (e.g. ?? er)
?	31FF	?	Katakana Letter Small Ro	r , succeeding the vowel o. (e.g. ?? or)
Rejected characters (Unicode represents them using combining character Combining character In digital typography, combining characters are Character that are intended to modify other characters. The most common combining characters in the Latin script are the combining diacritical marks .... s)
	31F7 + 309A	?	Katakana Letter Small Pu	Final p
	30BB + 309A	??	Katakana Letter Se With Semi-Voiced Sound Mark	ce
	30C4 + 309A	??	Katakana Letter Tu With Semi-Voiced Sound Mark	tu. ?? and ?? are interchangeable.
	30C8 + 309A	??	Katakana Letter To With Semi-Voiced Sound Mark	tu. ?? and ?? are interchangeable.

Basic syllables

	a [a]	i [i]	u [u]	e [e]	o [o]
	a ? [a]	i ? [i]	u ? [u]	e ? [e]	o ? [o]
k [k] ¹	ka ? [ka]	ki ? [ki]	ku ? [ku]	ke ? [ke]	ko ? [ko]
k [k] ¹	-k ? [-k]
s [s] ~ []	sa ??/? ² [sa] ~ [a]	si ? [i]	su ??/? ² [su] ~ [u]	se ??/? ² [se] ~ [e]	so ??/? ² [so] ~ [o]
s [s] ~ []	-s ?/? ² [-]
t [t] ¹	ta ? [ta]	ci ? [ti]	tu ??/?? ² [tu]	te ? [te]	to ? [to]
t [t] ¹	-t ?/? ³ [-t]
c [ts] ~ [t] ¹	ca ?? [tsa] ~ [ta]	ci ? [ti]	cu ?? [tsu] ~ [tu]	ce ?? [tse] ~ [te]	co ?? [tso] ~ [to]
n [n]	na ? [na]	ni ? [ni]	nu ? [nu]	ne ? [ne]	no ? [no]
n [n]	-n ?/? ⁴ [-n/-m-/-?-] ⁵
h ⁶ [h]	ha ? [ha]	hi ? [çi]	hu ? [u]	he ? [he]	ho ? [ho]
-h ⁶ [-x]	-ah ? [-ax]	-ih ? [-iç]	-uh ? [-ux]	-eh ? [-ex]	-oh ? [-ox]
p [p] ¹	pa ? [pa]	pi ? [pi]	pu ? [pu]	pe ? [pe]	po ? [po]
p [p] ¹	-p ? [-p]
m [m]	ma ? [ma]	mi ? [mi]	mu ? [mu]	me ? [me]	mo ? [mo]
m [m]	-m ? [-m]
y [j]	ya ? [ja]		yu ? [ju?]	ye ?? [je]	yo ? [jo]
r []	ra ? [a]	ri ? [i]	ru ? [u]	re ? [e]	ro ? [o]
	-ar ?² [-a]	-ir ?² [-i]	-ur ?² [-u]	-er ?² [-e]	-or ?² [-o]
	-r ?² [-]
w [w]	wa ? [wa]	wi ??/? ² [wi]		we ??/? ² [we]	wo ??/? ² [wo]

¹: k, t, c, p are sometimes voiced as [g], [d], [dz] ~ [d], [b], respectively. It doesn't change the meaning of a word, but it sounds more rough/masculine. When they are voiced, they may be written as g, d, j, dz, b, ?, ?, ??, ??, ?, etc.

²: Both used according to actual pronunciations, or to writer's preferred styles.

³: ? is final t at the end of a word. (e.g. pet = ?? = ??) In the middle of a polysyllabic word, it's a final consonant preceding the initial with a same value. (e.g. orta /otta/ = ???. ??? is not preferred.)

⁴: At the end of a word, n can be written either ? or ?. In the middle of a polysyllabic word, it's ?. (e.g. tan-mosir = ????? = ??+???, but not ?????.)

⁵: [m] before [p], [?] before [k], [n] elsewhere. Unlike Japanese, it does not become other sounds such as nasal vowel

Nasal vowel

A nasal vowel is a vowel that is produced with a lowering of the Soft palate so that air escapes both through nose as well as the mouth. The term stands in opposition to the term "oral vowel" refers to an ordinary vowel without this nasalisation....
s.

⁶: Initial h [h] and final h [x] are different phenomes. Final h exists in Sakhalin dialect only.

Diphthongs

Final

Syllable coda

Syllable onset

In phonetics and phonology, a syllable onset is the part of a syllable that precedes the syllable nucleus....
k:


kay	kuy	koy	kaw	kiw	kew		key
??	??	??	??	??	??	??	??

Since the above rule is used systematically, some katakana combinations have different sounds from conventional Japanese.

	??	??	??	??	??	??
Ainu
Japanese

Long vowels

There are long vowels in Sakhalin dialect. Either circumflex

Circumflex

The circumflex is a diacritic mark used in written Serbian language, Croatian language, Esperanto, French language, West Frisian language, Norwegian language, Romanian language, Slovak language, Vietnamese language, Romaji, Romanization of Persian, Welsh language, Portuguese language, Italian language, Afrikaans language, Turkish language...
or macron

Macron

A macron, from Greek language meaning "long", is a diacritic ? placed over or under a vowel which was originally used to mark a Long syllable#Syllable weight in classical poetry in Meter #Greek and Latin, but has now been taken also to indicate that the vowel is long vowel....
is used in Latin, long vowel sign

Choon

The , also known as ', ', or Katakana-Hiragana Prolonged Sound Mark by the Unicode Consortium, is a Japanese typographic symbols which indicates a choon, or a long vowel of two mora e in length....
is used in katakana.

Example with initial k:

[ka?]	[ki?]	[ku?]	[ke?]	[ko?]
kâ	kî	kû	kê	kô
ka	ki	ku	ke	ko
??	??	??	??	??

Oral literature

The Ainu have a rich oral tradition

Oral literature

Oral literature corresponds in the sphere of the spoken word to literature as literature operates in the domain of the writing word. It thus forms a generally more fundamental component of culture, but operates in many ways as one might expect literature to do....
of hero-sagas called Yukar

Yukar

are Ainu people sagas that form a long rich tradition of oral literature. In older periods the epics were performed by both men and women; during the 19th and early 20th centuries, when Ainu culture was in decline, women were generally the most skilful performers....
, which retain a number of grammatical and lexical archaisms.

External links

in Samani, Hokkaido
Samani, Hokkaido

, is a town located in Samani District, Hokkaido, Hidaka Subprefecture, Hokkaido, Japan.As of 2008, the town has an estimated population of 5,466 and a population density of 15.84 persons per km2....
by John Batchelor
by John Batchelor
by John Bengtson (undated)
by Kane Kumagai, translated by Yongdeok Cho

Ainu language

Speakers

Phonology

Typology and grammar

Writing

Special katakana for the Ainu language

Basic syllables

Diphthongs

Long vowels

Oral literature

See also

External links

Japanese