African American Women, 1960's - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

African Americans in the United States faced discrimination

Discrimination

Discrimination is the prejudicial treatment of an individual based on their membership in a certain group or category. It involves the actual behaviors towards groups such as excluding or restricting members of one group from opportunities that are available to another group. The term began to be...

, segregation

Segregation

Segregation or segregate refers to setting apart or separating things or people and may refer to:* Particle segregation* Segregation in materials* Magnetic-activated cell sorting* Segregate * Mendel's law of segregation...

, and stereotyping, especially in the Southern and Midwestern United states for decades after the American Civil War

American Civil War

The American Civil War was a civil war fought in the United States of America. In response to the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States, 11 southern slave states declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States of America ; the other 25...

. “In the 1960s, Americans who knew only the potential of "equal protection of the laws" was thought to be the president, the Congress, and the courts to fulfill the promise of the 14th Amendment

Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was adopted on July 9, 1868, as one of the Reconstruction Amendments.Its Citizenship Clause provides a broad definition of citizenship that overruled the Dred Scott v...

. The inequality prevalent in the time period before the Civil Rights movement

Civil rights movement

The civil rights movement was a worldwide political movement for equality before the law occurring between approximately 1950 and 1980. In many situations it took the form of campaigns of civil resistance aimed at achieving change by nonviolent forms of resistance. In some situations it was...

gained strength in the U.S., anthropologist Carol B. Stack produced her ethnography entitled All Our Kin. Stack’s research was collected as she immersed herself in the culture of an impoverished community in the vicinity of Chicago, the identity and whereabouts of which is unknown and thus referred to as “Jackson Harbor.” Stack focused on the poorest section of Jackson Harbor, The Flats, for an in depth exploration of the state of the African American

African American

African Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have at least partial ancestry from any of the native populations of Sub-Saharan Africa and are the direct descendants of enslaved Africans within the boundaries of the present United States...

people.

History

The Emancipation Proclamation

Emancipation Proclamation

The Emancipation Proclamation is an executive order issued by United States President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, during the American Civil War using his war powers. It proclaimed the freedom of 3.1 million of the nation's 4 million slaves, and immediately freed 50,000 of them, with nearly...

was created when Abraham Lincon was president, and as well as the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendment

Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

The Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits each government in the United States from denying a citizen the right to vote based on that citizen's "race, color, or previous condition of servitude"...

s to the constitution, were supposed to have freed the African American population in the 1860s, but they were still not equal citizens a century later. Many people disagreed to the freedom of slaves after the union had won the army. This led to Lincon's assasination on April 14, 1865. The Civil Rights Act of 1875

Civil Rights Act of 1875

The Civil Rights Act of 1875 was a United States federal law proposed by Senator Charles Sumner and Representative Benjamin F. Butler in 1870...

stated, “Be it enacted, that all persons within the jurisdiction of the United States shall be entitled to the full and equal enjoyment of the accommodations, advantages, facilities, and privileges of inns, public conveyances on land or water, theaters, and other places of public amusement; subject only to the conditions and limitations established by law, and applicable alike to citizens of every race and color, regardless of any previous condition of servitude.” National law called for equality among races, but states established limitations and stipulations that disallowed the full execution of the act.

The Jim Crow laws

Jim Crow laws

The Jim Crow laws were state and local laws in the United States enacted between 1876 and 1965. They mandated de jure racial segregation in all public facilities, with a supposedly "separate but equal" status for black Americans...

, created in 1876, required segregation of the black community from the white majority. These laws dictated where and how African Americans lived. A black citizen was even barred from voting by requirements such as literacy tests and taxes, or laws like the Grandfather clause

Grandfather clause

Grandfather clause is a legal term used to describe a situation in which an old rule continues to apply to some existing situations, while a new rule will apply to all future situations. It is often used as a verb: to grandfather means to grant such an exemption...

. The “separate but equal” ruling of Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896 upheld the common pro- segregation view that blacks and whites should maintain the same freedoms, but a certain distance should be required.

The Civil rights era was defined by Supreme Court

Supreme Court of the United States

The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court in the United States. It has ultimate appellate jurisdiction over all state and federal courts, and original jurisdiction over a small range of cases...

cases, rallies, protests, and leaders, but the people who supported the cause are lumped into one identity. “Many historians, constitutional scholars, and civil rights activists argue that the modern civil rights movement began on May 17, 1954, at 12: 52 P.M. with the unanimous decision rendered by the United States Supreme Court in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. This case overturned Plessy v. Ferguson', ruling that the fourteenth amendment stated each person be provided with an equal opportunity for education and that segregated schools were indeed not "separate but equal".

The rights of African American citizens were often ignored by society or prevented by additional amendments to laws and social taboos. Segregation disallowed equality among races and continued well into the sixties until the passing of the Civil Rights Acts. The Voting Rights Act

Voting Rights Act

The Voting Rights Act of 1965 is a landmark piece of national legislation in the United States that outlawed discriminatory voting practices that had been responsible for the widespread disenfranchisement of African Americans in the U.S....

"authorized federal examiners to register qualified voters and suspended devices such as literacy tests that aimed to prevent African Americans from voting". Civil rights leaders, like Rosa Parks

Rosa Parks

Rosa Louise McCauley Parks was an African-American civil rights activist, whom the U.S. Congress called "the first lady of civil rights", and "the mother of the freedom movement"....

and Martin Luther King Jr., experienced the full power of racial segregation and prejudice.

The Flats

In the Midwest United States during the mid nineteen- sixties, when Stack completed her research, the black community of Jackson Harbor was in shambles. The author of Tally’s Corner, Elliot Liebow, wrote that, “the job fails the man and the man fails the job.” Men in this society maintain the lowest paying jobs that required the least amount of skill. These jobs were often unstable and could not provide economic security for the men who held them, and consequently did not allow for family stability. Economic insecurity caused the number of Jackson Harbor citizens on welfare to be significant.
If a man could not be economically independent, he was unlikely to develop strong and lasting romantic relationships. In this society men were presented as “economic exploiters of women,” and they “expect[d] other men to do the same.” Men in Jackson Harbor were not encouraged to be loyal partners and the vast number of failed relationships set the pace for male infidelity, lack of commitment, and women’s low expectations. The community was matrifocal as a whole, centering around the women and their kin.

Marriage only occurred when a man held a stable job, which was rare in Jackson Harbor. A man had to feel his own sense of “self importance” and independence. If he could not provide for his lover and however many children also involved, he would not enter into matrimony. The “masculine role” depicted by social norms in America greatly deterred men from marriage in the black community. In the nineteen- fifties, men were the “money- makers” and the strong head of the home, and although the women’s rights movement in the sixties was changing social expectation for gender roles, Midwestern communities, such as Jackson Harbor, still maintained the stereotypical domestic verses commercial ideals for men and women. Due to the improbability of marital ties, children were often born out of wedlock.

Along with an unstable economic aspect to life in Jackson Harbor, education was not up to par. Adults could not attain highly skilled occupations that would pay better salaries. Racism also barred these people from finding a way out of poverty and the fated way of life that Jackson Harbor sustained. It was possible to escape the destined lifestyle provided by Harbor society in some cases, as is shown by Stack’s first contact, a fellow student at the university, but most of the people of the community accepted life as it was.

Stack states that “The black urban poor, assuming a cooperative life style, are simultaneously locked into an intimate, ongoing bond with white culture and white values.” The culture, technology, employment, organizations, and education of the time displayed “the value system of the traditional middle- class white sector of American society.” The people of Jackson Harbor were influenced by the ideals of the average white citizens, but they did not have opportunity to match the affluent social expectations.

Kinship

Family and friend support networks in Jackson Harbor were intricate and essential to the community’s way of life. Obligations to kin helped and hindered the individual, especially when involving romance. Objections or demands made by a person’s kin could be detrimental to a relationship. Women in particular faced familial protest to a romantic relationship. If a woman were to get married or move out of her family’s home to raise her own family, her kin lose the economic and physical benefits she provided. Once married, a woman would devote her time and energy to her husband and any children they may have; her family would suddenly be short one helper. As such, a woman’s family would seldom support her relationship with a man, let alone encourage the couple to marry. Kin would repeatedly warn a woman not to marry or state that the man was unsuitable. Even gossiping about unfaithfulness of the man was a regular practice to discourage females from extended sexual relations.

While Stack was observing Jackson Harbor, one woman named Ruby gave an account that displayed how kinship worked against other relationships. Her family worked to break apart her affairs with men, repeatedly advising her against marriage to men she loved. They told her. “ ‘He ain’t no good, he’s been creeping on you. I told you once not to marry him. You’ll end up right back on ADC’.” She confided in Stack that “If I ever get married, I’m leaving town!”

Kinship ties for men, unlike women who stuck to blood relatives, often included other men in their position. Single, average males would bond and assist each other. These ties were equally important in the black community for providing security and solace. When a man would lose his job, he would seek entertainment and joy among his peers. This practice of turning to others in similar situations worked against the preservation of romantic associations. When a man sought the company of his friends over the comfort of his significant other, the woman would become suspicious, jealous, or both parties would lose interest.

Women

In Jackson Harbor, poverty and racism prevailed over romantic relationships. Women had low expectations for men. “Many women tend to debase men and especially young boys, regarding them as inherently “bad,” more susceptible to sin, drinking, going around with women.” Men generally acted as the community’s stereotypes anticipated, while women standardized these behaviors. Men and women acknowledged each other as different and predicted one another’s conduct based on community precedence.

Julia Ambrose, a mother of two, and resident of Jackson Harbor, shared her story with Stack. She once loved a man, Elliot, and they resided happily together for some time. When he lost his job, he resorted to the anticipated behavior of an unemployed male and began to spend most of his time away from his home and family. They were forced to return to welfare, while Julia and Elliot grew apart. When Elliot began cheating on Julia, she decided to seek revenge. She reportedly told Stack, “The point is a woman has to have her own pride. She can’t let a man rule her.” Women in this society often felt wounded by their cheating partners and refused to appear foolish, so they, too, would resort to infidelity. A cycle of love, loss, disinterest, and disloyalty prevailed in the community of Jackson Harbor.

The power of gossip played a substantial role in the love lives of the people of Harbor. Once a rumor of infidelity began a woman would become suspicious of her spouse or boyfriend. The spoken word caused speculation and distrust in many situations, and was often based on fact. Sexual relationships were limited by this network of social contact. Once the seed of worry was planted, retaliation was frequent.

Women did possess several privileges over the men in Jackson Harbor. One such privilege was the accessibility of welfare. Many people in the community had to seek governmental aid, as economic standards were low, but women could more easily obtain the necessary financial help. Welfare actually worked against the common African American male. The role of provider was lost when an individual had to seek hand outs. Many women came to associate security with welfare and family networks.
Women in the Jackson Harbor community were not powerless. In many ways they were equally trapped as men. The low economic standards of this society, the racism expressed by outsiders, and the aspect of being fated to the same life as your family before you held these people in a cycle. Men tried to hold onto jobs, jumped around among lovers, and were beaten down by factors beyond their control. Women relied on their kin, had lovers but rarely married, and had children they could not provide for without aid.

Within the community, it would appear that women possessed equality to men, but American society, with its racist and sexist tendencies, controlled the lives of the African American population. Women had agency, the power to make decisions, but their choices were limited by civilization as a whole. In the sixties women were fighting to break the mold of the domestic home- makers. Activists and feminists wanted the female population to have opportunities once denied to them; working outside the home, the ability to choose not to be mothers, and true equality to men were their driving forces. The women of Jackson Harbor were far from reaching these goals because their society was struggling just to survive.

Men in the black community could not gain access to better pay and highly skilled occupations, therefore the women stood little chance to receive admittance. Before the females of Jackson Harbor could receive equality to males, the men needed to be equal to the average Caucasian man. The civil rights movement had to push social boundaries to the point of acceptance in big cities, and then equality would be attainable for the black men in the Midwest . Women’s rights would follow in those footsteps.

Women of Jackson Harbor were by no means helpless. They could choose their own lovers, seek retribution on unfaithful partners, and they would not be blamed or shunned by society. Women retained their pride. Marriage was not a given for these women and as such the community did not judge a single mother; she was treated as any other women would be. Gender roles were present in this community; women were domestic workers in the informal sector, while men worked in the formal sector.

Children in Jackson Harbor

Although All Our Kin focuses heavily on the adult population of Jackson Harbor, childcare practices reveal distinct social aspects of the community. Women, mothers especially, faced problems stemming from poverty and an unstable economy among their neighbors and kin. As a result, women were forced to rely on family connections to support themselves and their children. Mothers often lived with family members or sent their children to live with relatives. Stack described this solution as the “shared parental responsibility among kin.” Most children resided with at least three family members in the course of their maturation.

Grandparents, uncles, aunts, cousins, and even siblings played important roles in the lives of children. According to Stack, “the cycle of residence changes, the size of the dwelling, employment, and many other factors determine where children sleep.” Economic stability, once again, controlled the way in which the people of Jackson Harbor lived. A child generally had several “mother” figures, some of which were more associated with their upbringing than their biological mother.
Many situations saw children separated from their biological parents for financial, convenience, and personal reasons. If a parent was entering a new relationship or ending a marriage, children could be removed from the situation by being sent to live with their kin. As family members, they were responsible for helping to the best of their ability. Family supported their loved ones because they had few other ways in which they could seek security. In the case of Loretta Smart, she lived with her father until she was five years old. When he became to elderly to care for Loretta properly he asked her uncle and his wife to take her in.

In certain situations, children choose to live with one parent rather than the other. Bernard Smith chose to live with his father when he turned sixteen “because “he lived near the center of town.” Bernard is twenty- five now, and even though he visits his mother nearly twice a week, he is still living with his father.” The child’s choice does not always reflect poor parenting on one parent’s behalf, but living with one parent may provide benefits or security over the other.
When a young woman becomes pregnant, her closest of kin will either guide her through motherhood or take over full care for the infant. This process was called “giv[ing] the child.” Lily Proctor was fourteen when she ran away to Chicago and became pregnant. She stated, “I was in no way ready for a baby. The baby’s grandmother [father’s mother] wanted the baby, so I gave my baby to her and she adopted her as her own.”

Occasionally persons un- related to the child were given custody. A couple who expressed a desire for a child or friends of the family may be given responsibility. Children were treated as a form of “currency” in Jackson Harbor; they were “‘borrowed’ or ‘loaned.’” Kin shared an understanding and relied on each other, creating a familial allegiance. Stack reported that, “In 1970 four-fifths of the children in The Flats were being raised by their mothers. One- fifth of the children were living with kinsmen rather than with their mothers.”

Civil rights movement

The civil rights movement ranged from people who wanted their basic rights to be identified and respected to radicalized groups. The Black Panther party

Black Panther Party

The Black Panther Party wasan African-American revolutionary leftist organization. It was active in the United States from 1966 until 1982....

emerged in October 1966 in Oakland, California. This organization “practiced militant self-defense of minority communities against the U.S. government, and fought to establish revolutionary socialism through mass organizing and community based programs.” They still operate today and maintain the stance that the “black community” will not be free until they “are able to determine our Divine Destiny.” The Black Panthers were the radical spectrum of the civil rights movement, while other organizations and leaders did not express the same anti- white feelings. These more moderate groups and people wanted liberation and respect, but used more peaceful means of expression.
In many areas of the United States, women were working to advance their position in society. Lulu Belle Madison White was a “Civil rights activist, educator,” and “orator.” She “was the first woman of the South and South- west to become a full- salaried executive secretary of a local chapter of the National Association of the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).” White devoted her life to ending the reign of the Jim Crow laws and fought segregation in America.

Organizations like the NAACP and the National Council of Negro Women (NCNW) were started to protect the African American public and to battle for equality. The civil rights movement worked for the advancement of the black race, but did not guarantee the equality of women. During the on Washington in 1963, at which Martin Luther King Jr. gave his speech beginning with “I have a dream,” female civil rights leaders were denied the chance to speak. They were told that “sex- specific glory- seeking… was anathema to the movement and the many women involved in its several organizations.” Even within their own movement, women were not viewed as colleagues, but as liabilities.

Change in the status of women

Today in the United States, women have reached greater equality to men. The civil rights movement and the women’s rights movements provided the catalyst for women and men of all races to express their strife with the promise of natural rights, and the subsequent withholding of those said rights. Segregation and the “separate but equal” policy lost credibility in American society. The Jim Crow laws were no longer obeyed but the public and racial acceptance has become the social norm.

Women today maintain careers in the highest positions in their fields. Women are still nurturing and domestically inclined, but they are not fated to this gender ideology. Occupations are often stereotyped to be a “man’s” job or a “woman’s” job, but there a person can break the mold. Free education is available to all U.S. citizens through high school and higher education is increasingly gaining momentum and accessible for the masses.
The average African American woman in the 1960s in towns like Jackson Harbor did not have many options. She still maintained her agency through the choices she did have, but in a sense she would be set on one pathway for life. Today an ethnically diverse campus or business is ideal. With policies such as affirmative action a woman of a different race has increased chances of being accepted at a university. Opportunities are at an all time high for African American women.
Some women, of all racial backgrounds, continue to be the homemakers and are faced with discrimination and sexism. Organizations like the Fresh Start Women’s foundation and The National Organization for Women

National Organization for Women

The National Organization for Women is the largest feminist organization in the United States. It was founded in 1966 and has a membership of 500,000 contributing members. The organization consists of 550 chapters in all 50 U.S...

(NOW) work to protect and aid women. They help women preserve their independence and strength.

From the example of women in Jackson Harbor we can see the difficulties our predecessors faced. Women have fought endlessly for equality and fair treatment. Women are not the weaker sex today, and have triumphed over adversity. Government, business, teaching, managerial, and other powerful positions are held by women. Equality of pay and fair employment are struggles faced by females in present society, but women have made great strides in previous decades.

The women of Jackson Harbor had minimal education, were generally unemployed, did not have stable romantic relationships, faced poverty, and relied on welfare to provide for their kin. Domestic tasks were aligned with the female population of this Midwestern black community. Men were not pressured to respect women and likewise women did not expect to be highly valued. Infidelity, separation, illegitimate childbirth, and early motherhood occurred often. The women of Jackson Harbor were economically, racially and sexually inferior in the eyes of American public. Today there are still women faced with these dilemmas and society continues to look down upon them, but there are groups and organizations to support these women.

Jackson Harbor is a clear example of the barriers women have broken. Women have always had agency, but they are provided with more options to choose from. True equality is still being sought by women in the U.S., as well as around the world. Looking back at women in America’s past allows people to see what can cause change in places where women continue to be denied basic freedoms. History is a teaching method. Women can help one another find freedom. All of humanity can work toward a better tomorrow, while respectably remembering those who came before them. The women of Jackson Harbor are both teachers and examples for today’s women.

History

The Flats

Kinship

Women

Children in Jackson Harbor

Civil rights movement

Change in the status of women

See also