Adib Shishakli
Encyclopedia
Adib ibn Hasan Shishakli was a Syria
n military leader and President of Syria (1953–54).
Born into a notable Syrian-Kurdish family of Hama
, Shishakli served with the French Army
during the mandate era. He studied at the Military Academy of Damascus
(which later was relocated to Homs) and became an early member of the Syrian Social Nationalist Party
(SSNP) of Antun Saadeh
, promoting the concept of a Greater Syria
. His brother Salah was also a prominent member of the SSNP. After independence
, Shishakli fought in a volunteer Arab
army, known as the Army of Deliverance, against the Zionist
militias in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War
.
which had taken place soon after in 1949, shattering Syria's weak parliamentary system. Only months after al-Za'im's takeover, the weak ruler was overthrown by a group of officers connected to the SSNP, including Shishakli and Colonel Sami al-Hinnawi
, who led the new military junta. Za'im had betrayed the SSNP leader Antun Saadeh
, giving him to Lebanese
authorities where he was tried and executed for wanting to destroy the modern state of Lebanon. An infuriated Shishakli co-launched the coup of 1949 to revenge Saadeh's killing, and reportedly ripped off Za'im's bloodstained shirt and took it to Saadeh's widow, who was still in Syria, telling her, "We have avenged his murder!"
Shishakli worked with Sami al-Hinnawi, the new de facto ruler of Syria who refused to assume power on his own and restored Syria's parliamentary system. Hinnawi became chief-of-staff of the Syrian Army and a veteran nationalist
, Hashem al-Atassi, who had been president in the 1930s, to become prime minister, and then president of Syria. Atassi wanted to create union with Hashemite
Iraq
, something which Shishakli greatly opposed, claiming that Hinnawi was the drive behind pro-Hashemite sentiment in Syria.
. All of this greatly weakened the pro-union elements in Syria but they continued to try working for union through the cabinets of Prime Minister Nazim al-Kudsi
.
Shishakli conditioned that all governments must include his right-hand-man Fawzi Selu
as minister of defense, to curb Hashemite influence in the Syrian government. When Prime Minister Maarouf al-Dawalibi
, a pro-Iraq politician from Aleppo, refused, Shishakli responded on 28 November 1951. He arrested Dawalibi and his entire cabinet, in addition to all pro-Iraq politicians in Syria, including the leaders of the People's Party
, Nazim al-Kudsi
and Rushdi al-Kikhya. In protest, Atassi resigned from office and moved into the opposition. Pleased to get rid of this stubborn nationalist, who rejected officer intervention in political affairs, Shishakli made his comrade Selu the Chief-of-Staff of the Army, the Prime Minister, the Minister of Defense, and the Head of State. But in effect, Selu was nothing but a figurehead. Real powers lay in the hands of Adib al-Shishakli.
of Damascus, the People's Party
of Aleppo, the Communist Party
, the Baath Party
, and the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood
. He also outlawed all newspaper
s that were not pro-Shishakli, and banished the Baath leaders Akram al-Hawrani
, Michel Aflaq
, and Salah al-Bitar to Lebanon, where they then actively worked against his regime.
He was a skilled public speaker, however, and relied greatly on the radio
to transmit his speeches to every-day Syrians. In August 1952, he established an official government party, the Arab Liberation Movement, but it was boycott
ed by powerful representatives of the civilian political society, such as Hashim al-Atassi
. The party was progressive and accepted women among its ranks and calling for a limited degree of socialism
. Some said that he viewed himself as "an Arab Caesar
." In mid-1953 Shishakli staged an election
to make himself President, but he was by now facing mounting dissent.
countries, and maintained Syria's uncompromising stance towards Israel
. Syrian relations with the Hashemite
monarchies of Jordan
and Iraq
were poor during his presidency, but he also looked with distrust at the rapid spread of Nasserism
. Many believe that Nasser
's Free Officer Revolution of 1952 in Egypt
had been modeled after Shishakli's own coups of 1949 and 1951. Shishakli's relations were strong, however, with King Ibn Saud
of Saudi Arabia
, his son King Abdul-Aziz bin Muhammad
, and King Talal
of Jordan
.
Shishakli greatly liked King Talal and said that he had no ambitions in Syria, unlike his grand-father King Abdullah I
or his grandson, King Hussein. Despite this, and in contrast with his pro-Western outlook and some Kurdish background, Shishakli recognized the desires of Syria's Arab
majority and accordingly adopted a policy of pan-Arabism
. He clashed frequently with the independent-minded Druze
minority on the Jabal Druze mountain, accusing them of wanting to topple his regime using funds from Jordan and, in 1954, resorted to shelling Druze strongholds to put down resistance to his rule.
His relations with both Britain and the United States were mixed. Britain courted Shishakli during the early period of his rule in the hope that Syria would join plans for a British-led Middle East Defense Organization. The United States offered Shishakli considerable sums of money to settle Palestinian refugees in Syria and turn them into Syrians. Shishakli, although tempted by these offers of Western arms and money, did not take them. The Palestinian situation had soured Syrians on relations with the West. Syria wanted revenge rather than to accept defeat and repair Syria's damaged relations with the West and make peace with Israel.
, Druze officers, and Ba'ath Party members and possibly had Iraqi backing. He had also arrested a lot of active officers in the Syrian Army, including the rising young Adnan al-Malki
, also a prominent Baathist. Leading the anti-Shishakli movement were former President Atassi and the veteran Druze leader Sultan al-Atrash
. The largest anti-Shishakli conference had been held in Atassi's home in Homs
. Shishakli had responded by arresting Atassi and Atrash
's sons, Adnan and Mansur (both of whom were ranking politicians in Syria).
When the insurgency reached its peak, Shishakli backed down, refusing to drag Syria into civil war
. He fled to Lebanon, but when the Druze leader Kamal Jumblat threatened to have him killed, he fled to Brazil
. Prior to the union
between Syria and Egypt in 1958, Shishakli toyed with the idea of returning to Syria to launch a coup d'état, using funds provided by Iraq. The coup was foiled by Syrian intelligence and Shishakli was sentenced to death in absentia.
On 27 September 1964, Shishakli was assassinated at Ceres, Brazil
by Nawaf Ghazaleh
, a Syrian Druze
who sought revenge for the bombardments of Jabal Druze.
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....
n military leader and President of Syria (1953–54).
Born into a notable Syrian-Kurdish family of Hama
Hama
Hama is a city on the banks of the Orontes River in west-central Syria north of Damascus. It is the provincial capital of the Hama Governorate. Hama is the fourth-largest city in Syria—behind Aleppo, Damascus, and Homs—with a population of 696,863...
, Shishakli served with the French Army
French Army
The French Army, officially the Armée de Terre , is the land-based and largest component of the French Armed Forces.As of 2010, the army employs 123,100 regulars, 18,350 part-time reservists and 7,700 Legionnaires. All soldiers are professionals, following the suspension of conscription, voted in...
during the mandate era. He studied at the Military Academy of Damascus
Damascus
Damascus , commonly known in Syria as Al Sham , and as the City of Jasmine , is the capital and the second largest city of Syria after Aleppo, both are part of the country's 14 governorates. In addition to being one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, Damascus is a major...
(which later was relocated to Homs) and became an early member of the Syrian Social Nationalist Party
Syrian Social Nationalist Party
The Syrian Social Nationalist Party , is a secular nationalist political party in Lebanon and Syria. It advocates the establishment of a Syrian nation state spanning the Fertile Crescent, including present day Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Jordan, the Palestinian Territories, Israel, Cyprus, Kuwait,...
(SSNP) of Antun Saadeh
Antun Saadeh
Antun Saadeh was a Lebanese Syrian nationalist philosopher, writer and politician who founded the Syrian Social Nationalist Party.-Life:...
, promoting the concept of a Greater Syria
Greater Syria
Greater Syria , also known simply as Syria, is a term that denotes a region in the Near East bordering the Eastern Mediterranean Sea or the Levant....
. His brother Salah was also a prominent member of the SSNP. After independence
Independence
Independence is a condition of a nation, country, or state in which its residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory....
, Shishakli fought in a volunteer Arab
Arab
Arab people, also known as Arabs , are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing...
army, known as the Army of Deliverance, against the Zionist
Zionism
Zionism is a Jewish political movement that, in its broadest sense, has supported the self-determination of the Jewish people in a sovereign Jewish national homeland. Since the establishment of the State of Israel, the Zionist movement continues primarily to advocate on behalf of the Jewish state...
militias in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War
1948 Arab-Israeli War
The 1948 Arab–Israeli War, known to Israelis as the War of Independence or War of Liberation The war commenced after the termination of the British Mandate for Palestine and the creation of an independent Israel at midnight on 14 May 1948 when, following a period of civil war, Arab armies invaded...
.
Political/military career
The Arab defeat in that war was a motivating factor for the military coup of Husni al-Za'imHusni al-Za'im
Husni al-Za'im was a Syrian military man and politician. Husni al-Za'im, whose family is of Kurdish ancestry, had been an officer in the Ottoman Army. After France instituted its colonial mandate over Syria after the First World War, he became an officer in the French Army...
which had taken place soon after in 1949, shattering Syria's weak parliamentary system. Only months after al-Za'im's takeover, the weak ruler was overthrown by a group of officers connected to the SSNP, including Shishakli and Colonel Sami al-Hinnawi
Sami al-Hinnawi
Colonel Sami Hilmy al-Hinnawi was a Syrian politician and military man. He was born in Aleppo and had sereved in the Ottoman army before serving in the French-Syrian army during the French Mandate of Syria....
, who led the new military junta. Za'im had betrayed the SSNP leader Antun Saadeh
Antun Saadeh
Antun Saadeh was a Lebanese Syrian nationalist philosopher, writer and politician who founded the Syrian Social Nationalist Party.-Life:...
, giving him to Lebanese
Lebanon
Lebanon , officially the Republic of LebanonRepublic of Lebanon is the most common term used by Lebanese government agencies. The term Lebanese Republic, a literal translation of the official Arabic and French names that is not used in today's world. Arabic is the most common language spoken among...
authorities where he was tried and executed for wanting to destroy the modern state of Lebanon. An infuriated Shishakli co-launched the coup of 1949 to revenge Saadeh's killing, and reportedly ripped off Za'im's bloodstained shirt and took it to Saadeh's widow, who was still in Syria, telling her, "We have avenged his murder!"
Shishakli worked with Sami al-Hinnawi, the new de facto ruler of Syria who refused to assume power on his own and restored Syria's parliamentary system. Hinnawi became chief-of-staff of the Syrian Army and a veteran nationalist
Nationalism
Nationalism is a political ideology that involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a political entity defined in national terms, i.e. a nation. In the 'modernist' image of the nation, it is nationalism that creates national identity. There are various definitions for what...
, Hashem al-Atassi, who had been president in the 1930s, to become prime minister, and then president of Syria. Atassi wanted to create union with Hashemite
Hashemite
Hashemite is the Latinate version of the , transliteration: Hāšimī, and traditionally refers to those belonging to the Banu Hashim, or "clan of Hashim", a clan within the larger Quraish tribe...
Iraq
Iraq
Iraq ; officially the Republic of Iraq is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert....
, something which Shishakli greatly opposed, claiming that Hinnawi was the drive behind pro-Hashemite sentiment in Syria.
Seizing power
In December 1949, Shishakli launched another coup, the third in 1949, arresting Hinnawi to break Hashemite influence in Syria, but keeping Atassi at his post. He then ordered the assassination of Colonel Mohammad Nasser, the Air Force Commander, because he threatened Shishakli's popularity in the Syrian ArmyMilitary of Syria
The Syrian Armed Forces are the military forces of Syria. They consist of the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Air Defense Force.-Manpower:The President of Syria is the commander in chief of the Syrian armed forces, comprising some 646,500 troops upon mobilization. The military is a conscripted force;...
. All of this greatly weakened the pro-union elements in Syria but they continued to try working for union through the cabinets of Prime Minister Nazim al-Kudsi
Nazim al-Kudsi
Nazim al-Kudsi, also spelled "Koudsi", "al-Qudsi" or "al-Cudsi" , was a Syrian politician and head of state . He was born in and raised in Aleppo...
.
Shishakli conditioned that all governments must include his right-hand-man Fawzi Selu
Fawzi Selu
Fawzi Selu was a Syrian military leader, politician and head of state .-Career:He studied at the Homs Military Academy and joined the French-sponsored Troupe Speciales that was created when France imposed its League of Nations mandate on Syria in July 1920...
as minister of defense, to curb Hashemite influence in the Syrian government. When Prime Minister Maarouf al-Dawalibi
Maarouf al-Dawalibi
Maarouf al-Dawalibi , was a Syrian politician and a two time prime minister of Syria. He was born in Aleppo, and held a Ph.D. in Law. He served as a minister of economy between 1949 and 1950, and was elected speaker of the parliament in 1951. He also served as minister of defense between 1954 and...
, a pro-Iraq politician from Aleppo, refused, Shishakli responded on 28 November 1951. He arrested Dawalibi and his entire cabinet, in addition to all pro-Iraq politicians in Syria, including the leaders of the People's Party
People's Party (Syria)
People's Party was a Syrian political party that was active during the 1950s and the early 1960s. The party was established in 1948 as the main opposition party to the National Party...
, Nazim al-Kudsi
Nazim al-Kudsi
Nazim al-Kudsi, also spelled "Koudsi", "al-Qudsi" or "al-Cudsi" , was a Syrian politician and head of state . He was born in and raised in Aleppo...
and Rushdi al-Kikhya. In protest, Atassi resigned from office and moved into the opposition. Pleased to get rid of this stubborn nationalist, who rejected officer intervention in political affairs, Shishakli made his comrade Selu the Chief-of-Staff of the Army, the Prime Minister, the Minister of Defense, and the Head of State. But in effect, Selu was nothing but a figurehead. Real powers lay in the hands of Adib al-Shishakli.
Shishakli in power
Shishakli then dissolved all political parties and banned many newspapers, in a return to military rule. Among those to suffer persecution under his rule were the National PartyNational Party (Syria)
The National Party was group that led the struggle against the Ottomans in Syria after the leadership of the revolution against the French mandate in 1926 make up the National Front The National Party was group that led the struggle against the Ottomans in Syria after the leadership of the...
of Damascus, the People's Party
People's Party (Syria)
People's Party was a Syrian political party that was active during the 1950s and the early 1960s. The party was established in 1948 as the main opposition party to the National Party...
of Aleppo, the Communist Party
Syrian Communist Party
The Syrian Communist Party was a political party in Syria, founded in 1944. It became a member of the National Progressive Front in 1972...
, the Baath Party
Baath Party
The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party was a political party mixing Arab nationalist and Arab socialist interests, opposed to Western imperialism, and calling for the renaissance or resurrection and unification of the Arab world into a single state. Ba'ath is also spelled Ba'th or Baath and means...
, and the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood
Muslim Brotherhood
The Society of the Muslim Brothers is the world's oldest and one of the largest Islamist parties, and is the largest political opposition organization in many Arab states. It was founded in 1928 in Egypt by the Islamic scholar and schoolteacher Hassan al-Banna and by the late 1940s had an...
. He also outlawed all newspaper
Newspaper
A newspaper is a scheduled publication containing news of current events, informative articles, diverse features and advertising. It usually is printed on relatively inexpensive, low-grade paper such as newsprint. By 2007, there were 6580 daily newspapers in the world selling 395 million copies a...
s that were not pro-Shishakli, and banished the Baath leaders Akram al-Hawrani
Akram al-Hawrani
Akram al-Hawrani |transcribe]]d Hourani or Hurani) , was a Syrian politician who played a prominent role in the formation of a widespread populist, nationalist movement in Syria and in the rise of the Ba'th Party...
, Michel Aflaq
Michel Aflaq
Michel Aflaq was a Syrian philosopher, who is credited with being the ideological founder of ba'athism, a hybrid of Arab nationalism and Arab socialism.-Early life:...
, and Salah al-Bitar to Lebanon, where they then actively worked against his regime.
He was a skilled public speaker, however, and relied greatly on the radio
Radio
Radio is the transmission of signals through free space by modulation of electromagnetic waves with frequencies below those of visible light. Electromagnetic radiation travels by means of oscillating electromagnetic fields that pass through the air and the vacuum of space...
to transmit his speeches to every-day Syrians. In August 1952, he established an official government party, the Arab Liberation Movement, but it was boycott
Boycott
A boycott is an act of voluntarily abstaining from using, buying, or dealing with a person, organization, or country as an expression of protest, usually for political reasons...
ed by powerful representatives of the civilian political society, such as Hashim al-Atassi
Hashim al-Atassi
Hashim Bay Khalid al-Atassi was a Syrian nationalist, statesman and its President from 1936 to 1939, 1949 to 1951, and 1954 to 1955.- Background and early career :...
. The party was progressive and accepted women among its ranks and calling for a limited degree of socialism
Arab socialism
Arab socialism is a political ideology based on an amalgamation of Pan-Arabism and socialism. Arab socialism is distinct from the much broader tradition of socialist thought in the Arab world, which predates Arab socialism by as much as fifty years...
. Some said that he viewed himself as "an Arab Caesar
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman and a distinguished writer of Latin prose. He played a critical role in the gradual transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire....
." In mid-1953 Shishakli staged an election
Syrian presidential election, 1953
Presidential elections were held in Syria on 10 July 1953. There was only one candidate, Adib Shishakli, with voters asked to approve or reject his candicacy. A reported 99.7% of voters voted in favour, with a turnout of 86.8%.-Results:...
to make himself President, but he was by now facing mounting dissent.
Foreign relations
As leader of Syria, Shishakli sought good relations with WesternWestern world
The Western world, also known as the West and the Occident , is a term referring to the countries of Western Europe , the countries of the Americas, as well all countries of Northern and Central Europe, Australia and New Zealand...
countries, and maintained Syria's uncompromising stance towards Israel
Israel
The State of Israel is a parliamentary republic located in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea...
. Syrian relations with the Hashemite
Hashemite
Hashemite is the Latinate version of the , transliteration: Hāšimī, and traditionally refers to those belonging to the Banu Hashim, or "clan of Hashim", a clan within the larger Quraish tribe...
monarchies of Jordan
Jordan
Jordan , officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan , Al-Mamlaka al-Urduniyya al-Hashemiyya) is a kingdom on the East Bank of the River Jordan. The country borders Saudi Arabia to the east and south-east, Iraq to the north-east, Syria to the north and the West Bank and Israel to the west, sharing...
and Iraq
Iraq
Iraq ; officially the Republic of Iraq is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert....
were poor during his presidency, but he also looked with distrust at the rapid spread of Nasserism
Nasserism
Nasserism is an Arab nationalist political ideology based on the thinking of the former Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser. It was a major influence on pan-Arab politics in the 1950s and 1960s, and continues to have significant resonance throughout the Arab World to this day. It also...
. Many believe that Nasser
Gamal Abdel Nasser
Gamal Abdel Nasser Hussein was the second President of Egypt from 1956 until his death. A colonel in the Egyptian army, Nasser led the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 along with Muhammad Naguib, the first president, which overthrew the monarchy of Egypt and Sudan, and heralded a new period of...
's Free Officer Revolution of 1952 in Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
had been modeled after Shishakli's own coups of 1949 and 1951. Shishakli's relations were strong, however, with King Ibn Saud
Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia
King Abdul-Aziz of Saudi Arabia was the first monarch of the Third Saudi State known as Saudi Arabia. He was commonly referred to as Ibn Saud....
of Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia , commonly known in British English as Saudi Arabia and in Arabic as as-Sa‘ūdiyyah , is the largest state in Western Asia by land area, constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and the second-largest in the Arab World...
, his son King Abdul-Aziz bin Muhammad
Saud bin Abdul Aziz bin Muhammad al Saud
*Abdullah*Khalid*Mishari*FaisalImam Saud bin Abdul-Aziz bin Muhammad bin Saud ruled the First Saudi State from 1803 to 1814. During his rule, Saud annexed Makkah and Madinah from the Ottoman Empire.-Kingship:...
, and King Talal
Talal of Jordan
Talal I bin Abdullah 26 February 1909 – 7 July 1972) was the second King of Jordan from 20 July 1951 until forced to abdicate in favour of his son Hussein due to health reasons on 11 August 1952....
of Jordan
Jordan
Jordan , officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan , Al-Mamlaka al-Urduniyya al-Hashemiyya) is a kingdom on the East Bank of the River Jordan. The country borders Saudi Arabia to the east and south-east, Iraq to the north-east, Syria to the north and the West Bank and Israel to the west, sharing...
.
Shishakli greatly liked King Talal and said that he had no ambitions in Syria, unlike his grand-father King Abdullah I
Abdullah I of Jordan
Abdullah I bin al-Hussein, King of Jordan [‘Abd Allāh ibn al-Husayn] عبد الله الأول بن الحسين born in Mecca, Second Saudi State, was the second of three sons of Sherif Hussein bin Ali, Sharif and Emir of Mecca and his first wife Abdiyya bint Abdullah...
or his grandson, King Hussein. Despite this, and in contrast with his pro-Western outlook and some Kurdish background, Shishakli recognized the desires of Syria's Arab
Arab
Arab people, also known as Arabs , are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing...
majority and accordingly adopted a policy of pan-Arabism
Pan-Arabism
Pan-Arabism is an ideology espousing the unification--or, sometimes, close cooperation and solidarity against perceived enemies of the Arabs--of the countries of the Arab world, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Arabian Sea. It is closely connected to Arab nationalism, which asserts that the Arabs...
. He clashed frequently with the independent-minded Druze
Druze
The Druze are an esoteric, monotheistic religious community, found primarily in Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and Jordan, which emerged during the 11th century from Ismailism. The Druze have an eclectic set of beliefs that incorporate several elements from Abrahamic religions, Gnosticism, Neoplatonism...
minority on the Jabal Druze mountain, accusing them of wanting to topple his regime using funds from Jordan and, in 1954, resorted to shelling Druze strongholds to put down resistance to his rule.
His relations with both Britain and the United States were mixed. Britain courted Shishakli during the early period of his rule in the hope that Syria would join plans for a British-led Middle East Defense Organization. The United States offered Shishakli considerable sums of money to settle Palestinian refugees in Syria and turn them into Syrians. Shishakli, although tempted by these offers of Western arms and money, did not take them. The Palestinian situation had soured Syrians on relations with the West. Syria wanted revenge rather than to accept defeat and repair Syria's damaged relations with the West and make peace with Israel.
Downfall
Growing discontent eventually led to another coup, in which Shishakli was overthrown in February 1954. The plotters included members of the Syrian Communist PartySyrian Communist Party
The Syrian Communist Party was a political party in Syria, founded in 1944. It became a member of the National Progressive Front in 1972...
, Druze officers, and Ba'ath Party members and possibly had Iraqi backing. He had also arrested a lot of active officers in the Syrian Army, including the rising young Adnan al-Malki
Adnan al-Malki
Adnan al-Malki was a Syrian Army officer and political figure in the mid-20th century. He served as the deputy-chief of staff of the army and was one of the most powerful figures in the army and in national politics until his assassination in 1955.-Political career:Malki was a member of the Baath...
, also a prominent Baathist. Leading the anti-Shishakli movement were former President Atassi and the veteran Druze leader Sultan al-Atrash
Sultan al-Atrash
Sultan al-Atrash, Commonly known as Sultan Pasha al-Atrash was a prominent Arab Druze leader, Syrian nationalist and Commander General of the Syrian Revolution . He fought against the Ottomans, French, and even against the Syrian government in its days of dictatorship...
. The largest anti-Shishakli conference had been held in Atassi's home in Homs
Homs
Homs , previously known as Emesa , is a city in western Syria and the capital of the Homs Governorate. It is above sea level and is located north of Damascus...
. Shishakli had responded by arresting Atassi and Atrash
Atrash
The Atrash family is a famous Druze family. It is traditionally considered the source of leadership in Jabal ad-Duruz.The name has the alternate spellings of Atrache, Attrache, Attrasch Atrach, Attrach and Attrash, and is Arabic for "deaf"...
's sons, Adnan and Mansur (both of whom were ranking politicians in Syria).
When the insurgency reached its peak, Shishakli backed down, refusing to drag Syria into civil war
Civil war
A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same nation state or republic, or, less commonly, between two countries created from a formerly-united nation state....
. He fled to Lebanon, but when the Druze leader Kamal Jumblat threatened to have him killed, he fled to Brazil
Brazil
Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...
. Prior to the union
United Arab Republic
The United Arab Republic , often abbreviated as the U.A.R., was a sovereign union between Egypt and Syria. The union began in 1958 and existed until 1961, when Syria seceded from the union. Egypt continued to be known officially as the "United Arab Republic" until 1971. The President was Gamal...
between Syria and Egypt in 1958, Shishakli toyed with the idea of returning to Syria to launch a coup d'état, using funds provided by Iraq. The coup was foiled by Syrian intelligence and Shishakli was sentenced to death in absentia.
On 27 September 1964, Shishakli was assassinated at Ceres, Brazil
Ceres, Goiás
Ceres is a small city and municipality in central Goiás state, Brazil. It was the first agricultural colony built in the state of Goiás.-Geography:...
by Nawaf Ghazaleh
Nawaf Ghazaleh
Nawaf Ghazaleh was a Syrian Druze who assassinated the overthrown and former Syrian president Adib Shishakli. The assassination took place on September 27, 1964 in Brazil, where Shishkhali was in exile...
, a Syrian Druze
Druze
The Druze are an esoteric, monotheistic religious community, found primarily in Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and Jordan, which emerged during the 11th century from Ismailism. The Druze have an eclectic set of beliefs that incorporate several elements from Abrahamic religions, Gnosticism, Neoplatonism...
who sought revenge for the bombardments of Jabal Druze.
Sources and further reading
- Shishakli and the Druze: Integration and Intransigence Joshua Landis
- Sami MoubayedSami MoubayedSami Moubayed is a Syrian political analyst, journalist, and author based in Damascus, Syria. He is editor-in-chief of Forward Magazine, published in English in Syria since 2006. His articles on Middle East affairs have appeared in a variety of newspapers, including al-Ahram Weekly, Gulf News,...
Steel & Silk: Men and Women Who Shaped Syria 1900-2000 (Cune Press, 2005).