Abbott District
Encyclopedia
Abbott districts are school districts in New Jersey
that are provided remedies to ensure that their students receive public education in accordance with New Jersey’s state constitution. They were created in 1985 as a result of the first ruling of Abbott v. Burke, a case filed by the Education Law Center. The ruling asserted that public primary and secondary education in poor communities throughout the state was unconstitutionally substandard. There are currently thirty-one Abbott districts in New Jersey.
s in New Jersey covered by a series of New Jersey Supreme Court
rulings, begun in 1985, that found that the education provided to school children in poor communities was inadequate and unconstitutional and mandated that state funding for these districts be equal to that spent in the wealthiest districts in the state.
The Court in Abbott II and in subsequent rulings, ordered the State to assure that these children receive an adequate education through implementation of certain reforms, including standards-based education supported by parity funding. It include various supplemental programs and school facilities improvements, including to Head Start and early education programs. The Head Start and NAACP were represented by Maxim Thorne
as amici curiae in the case.
The part of the New Jersey Constitution
that is the basis of the Abbott decisions requires that:
In 2009, the New Jersey Supreme Court issued its latest Abbott ruling, holding that the State satisfied its constitutional burden by passing the New Jersey School Funding Reform Act of 2008 (SFRA). The Court released the State from prior remedial orders.
Two years later the Education Law Center, the original litigants in the case, challenged that school funding in the state's 2012 budget violated the 2009 agreement. The state's Supreme Court agreed and ruled that the state had to provide an additional $500 million to the state's 31 Abbott districts.
There is, however, limited evidence that the legal actions have improved student learning outcomes in the Abbott districts.
Using these factors, the Court in Abbott II identified 28 districts as Abbott districts. The Court also gave the New Jersey Legislature
or the Commissioner of Education
the authority to classify additional districts as Abbott districts based on these factors, which would then entitle the children to the Abbott programs and reforms. In 1998, the Legislature classified 3 additional districts, bringing the 2009 total of Abbott districts to 31.
PublicMind poll surveyed New Jersey residents about their awareness of and attitudes towards the Abbott decisions; 57% of voters reported that they had heard or read “nothing at all” about the Abbott decisions. Only 12% of voters responded that they had read or heard “a great deal” about the Abbott decisions. The survey also found that, despite a seeming lack of knowledge about the Abbott decisions, voters in New Jersey largely approved of the court decisions with 55% of the public approving and 28% disapproving. Dr. Peter Woolley, Executive Director of the PublicMind Poll, explained the results by stating, “voters don’t know the details but they agree with the principles.”
New Jersey
New Jersey is a state in the Northeastern and Middle Atlantic regions of the United States. , its population was 8,791,894. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York, on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Pennsylvania and on the southwest by Delaware...
that are provided remedies to ensure that their students receive public education in accordance with New Jersey’s state constitution. They were created in 1985 as a result of the first ruling of Abbott v. Burke, a case filed by the Education Law Center. The ruling asserted that public primary and secondary education in poor communities throughout the state was unconstitutionally substandard. There are currently thirty-one Abbott districts in New Jersey.
History
Abbott districts are school districtSchool district
School districts are a form of special-purpose district which serves to operate the local public primary and secondary schools.-United States:...
s in New Jersey covered by a series of New Jersey Supreme Court
New Jersey Supreme Court
The New Jersey Supreme Court is the highest court in the U.S. state of New Jersey. It has existed in three different forms under the three different state constitutions since the independence of the state in 1776...
rulings, begun in 1985, that found that the education provided to school children in poor communities was inadequate and unconstitutional and mandated that state funding for these districts be equal to that spent in the wealthiest districts in the state.
The Court in Abbott II and in subsequent rulings, ordered the State to assure that these children receive an adequate education through implementation of certain reforms, including standards-based education supported by parity funding. It include various supplemental programs and school facilities improvements, including to Head Start and early education programs. The Head Start and NAACP were represented by Maxim Thorne
Maxim Thorne
Maxim Thorne currently teaches Philanthropy at Yale University and blogs in the Business Section of the Huffington Post. He was a senior leader of America’s oldest civil rights organization, the NAACP. He served as a surrogate on the 2008 Obama presidential campaign and the Campaign's LGBT...
as amici curiae in the case.
The part of the New Jersey Constitution
New Jersey State Constitution
The Constitution of the State of New Jersey is the basic governing document of the State of New Jersey. In addition to three British Royal Charters issued for East Jersey, West Jersey and united New Jersey while they were still colonies, the state has been governed by three constitutions...
that is the basis of the Abbott decisions requires that:
[t]he Legislature shall provide for the maintenance and support of a thorough and efficient system of free public schools for the instruction of all the children in the State between the ages of five and eighteen years.
In 2009, the New Jersey Supreme Court issued its latest Abbott ruling, holding that the State satisfied its constitutional burden by passing the New Jersey School Funding Reform Act of 2008 (SFRA). The Court released the State from prior remedial orders.
Two years later the Education Law Center, the original litigants in the case, challenged that school funding in the state's 2012 budget violated the 2009 agreement. The state's Supreme Court agreed and ruled that the state had to provide an additional $500 million to the state's 31 Abbott districts.
There is, however, limited evidence that the legal actions have improved student learning outcomes in the Abbott districts.
Criteria
The Court in the Abbott II ruling of 1990 explicitly limited the Abbott programs and reforms to a class of school districts identified as "poorer urban districts" or "special needs districts." In 1997, these districts became known as "Abbott districts." The Court identified the specific factors used to designate districts as "Abbott districts." These districts:- must be those with the lowest socio-economic status, thus assigned to the lowest categories on the New Jersey Department of EducationNew Jersey Department of EducationThe New Jersey Department of Education administers state and federal aid programs affecting more than 1.4 million public and non-public elementary and secondary school children in the state of New Jersey. The department is headquartered in Trenton.The Department is responsible for ensuring that...
's District Factor GroupsDistrict Factor GroupsDistrict Factor Groups were first developed by the New Jersey Department of Education in 1975 for the purpose of comparing student performance on statewide assessments across demographically similar school districts...
(DFG) scale; - "evidence of substantive failure of thorough and efficient education;" including "failure to achieve what the DOE considers passing levels of performance on the High School Proficiency AssessmentHigh School Proficiency AssessmentThe High School Proficiency Assessment is a standardized test administered by the New Jersey Department of Education to all New Jersey high school students in March of their junior year...
(HSPA);" - have a large percentage of disadvantaged students who need "an education beyond the norm;"
- existence of an "excessive tax [for] municipal services" in the locality where the district is located.
Using these factors, the Court in Abbott II identified 28 districts as Abbott districts. The Court also gave the New Jersey Legislature
New Jersey Legislature
The New Jersey Legislature is the legislative branch of the government of the U.S. state of New Jersey. In its current form, as defined by the New Jersey Constitution of 1947, the Legislature consists of two houses: the General Assembly and the Senate...
or the Commissioner of Education
New Jersey Department of Education
The New Jersey Department of Education administers state and federal aid programs affecting more than 1.4 million public and non-public elementary and secondary school children in the state of New Jersey. The department is headquartered in Trenton.The Department is responsible for ensuring that...
the authority to classify additional districts as Abbott districts based on these factors, which would then entitle the children to the Abbott programs and reforms. In 1998, the Legislature classified 3 additional districts, bringing the 2009 total of Abbott districts to 31.
Public Opinion
In 2008, a Fairleigh Dickinson UniversityFairleigh Dickinson University
Fairleigh Dickinson University is a private university founded as a junior college in 1942. It now has several campuses located in New Jersey, Canada, and the United Kingdom.-Description:...
PublicMind poll surveyed New Jersey residents about their awareness of and attitudes towards the Abbott decisions; 57% of voters reported that they had heard or read “nothing at all” about the Abbott decisions. Only 12% of voters responded that they had read or heard “a great deal” about the Abbott decisions. The survey also found that, despite a seeming lack of knowledge about the Abbott decisions, voters in New Jersey largely approved of the court decisions with 55% of the public approving and 28% disapproving. Dr. Peter Woolley, Executive Director of the PublicMind Poll, explained the results by stating, “voters don’t know the details but they agree with the principles.”
Districts
The following 31 school districts are currently identified as Abbott districts:- Asbury Park Public SchoolsAsbury Park Public SchoolsAsbury Park Public Schools is a comprehensive community public school district headquartered in Asbury Park, New Jersey, United States, serving children in prekindergarten through twelfth grade. The district is one of 31 Abbott Districts statewide....
(Asbury ParkAsbury Park, New JerseyAsbury Park is a city in Monmouth County, New Jersey, United States, located on the Jersey Shore and part of the New York City Metropolitan Area. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city population was 16,116. The city is known for its rich musical history, including its association with...
) - Bridgeton Public SchoolsBridgeton Public SchoolsBridgeton Public Schools is a comprehensive community public school district that serves the city of Bridgeton, in Cumberland County, New Jersey, United States...
(BridgetonBridgeton, New JerseyBridgeton is a city in Cumberland County, New Jersey, United States, in the south part of the state, on the Cohansey River, near Delaware Bay. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city population was 25,349. It is the county seat of Cumberland County...
) - The City Of Burlington Public School District (Burlington CityBurlington, New JerseyBurlington is a city in Burlington County, New Jersey, United States and a suburb of Philadelphia. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city population was 9,920....
) - Camden City Public SchoolsCamden City Public SchoolsCamden City Public Schools is a comprehensive community public school district that serves students in prekindergarten through twelfth grade from the city of Camden, New Jersey, United States...
(CamdenCamden, New JerseyThe city of Camden is the county seat of Camden County, New Jersey. It is located across the Delaware River from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city had a total population of 77,344...
) - East Orange School DistrictEast Orange School DistrictEast Orange School District is a comprehensive community public school district serving students in kindergarten through twelfth grade from the city of East Orange, New Jersey...
(East OrangeEast Orange, New JerseyEast Orange is a city in Essex County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census the city's population 64,270, making it the state's 20th largest municipality, having dropped 5,554 residents from its population of 69,824 in the 2000 Census, when it was the state's 14th most...
) - Elizabeth Public SchoolsElizabeth Public SchoolsElizabeth Public Schools is a public school district headquartered in Elizabeth, in Union County, New Jersey, United States, serving students in prekindergarten through 12th grade. The district is one of 31 Abbott Districts statewide...
(ElizabethElizabeth, New JerseyElizabeth is a city in Union County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city had a total population of 124,969, retaining its ranking as New Jersey's fourth largest city with an increase of 4,401 residents from its 2000 Census population of 120,568...
) - Garfield Public SchoolsGarfield Public SchoolsThe Garfield Public Schools is a comprehensive community public school district that serves students in prekindergarten through twelfth grade from Garfield, in Bergen County, New Jersey, United States...
(GarfieldGarfield, New JerseyGarfield is a city in Bergen County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city population was 30,487.When the area that is now Garfield was first developed in 1873, it was known as East Passaic. In 1881, the community's name was changed to Garfield in honor of...
) - Gloucester City Public SchoolsGloucester City Public SchoolsGloucester City Public Schools is a comprehensive community public school district that is based in Gloucester City, New Jersey, and serves students in prekindergarten through twelfth grade...
(Gloucester CityGloucester City, New JerseyGloucester City is a city in Camden County, New Jersey, United States. As of the United States 2010 Census, the city population was 11,456.-Geography:Gloucester City is located at ....
) - Harrison Public SchoolsHarrison Public SchoolsThe Harrison Public School District is a comprehensive public school district serving students in Kindergarten through twelfth grade, located in the municipality of Harrison, in Hudson County, New Jersey...
(HarrisonHarrison, New JerseyHarrison is a town in Hudson County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the town's population was 13,620. The town is a suburb of the nearby city of Newark, New Jersey.-Geography:Harrison is located at ....
) - Hoboken Public SchoolsHoboken Public SchoolsHoboken Public Schools is a comprehensive community public school district located in Hoboken, New Jersey, United States, that serves children in kindergarten through twelfth grade. Hoboken Public Schools serves the city of Hoboken...
(HobokenHoboken, New JerseyHoboken is a city in Hudson County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city's population was 50,005. The city is part of the New York metropolitan area and contains Hoboken Terminal, a major transportation hub for the region...
) - Irvington Public SchoolsIrvington Public SchoolsIrvington Public Schools is a public school district serving children in grades K-12 in Irvington, New Jersey, United States. The district is one of 31 Abbott Districts statewide....
(IrvingtonIrvington, New JerseyIrvington is a township in Essex County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the township had a total population of 53,926, a decline of 11.2% from the 60,695 residents enumerated in the 2000 Census.-Geography:...
) - Jersey City Public SchoolsJersey City Public SchoolsThe Jersey City Public Schools is a comprehensive community public school district located in Jersey City, New Jersey. The district is one of 31 Abbott Districts statewide....
(Jersey CityJersey City, New JerseyJersey City is the seat of Hudson County, New Jersey, United States.Part of the New York metropolitan area, Jersey City lies between the Hudson River and Upper New York Bay across from Lower Manhattan and the Hackensack River and Newark Bay...
) - Keansburg School DistrictKeansburg School DistrictKeansburg School District is a school district based in Keansburg, New Jersey. KSD, an Abbott District, serves the borough of Keansburg.As of the 2007-08 school year, the district's four schools had an enrollment of 1,859 students and 171.0 classroom teachers , for a student–teacher ratio of...
(KeansburgKeansburg, New JerseyKeansburg is a borough in Monmouth County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the borough population was 10,105.Keansburg was formed as a borough by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on March 26, 1917, from portions of both Middletown Township and Raritan Township ,...
) - Long Branch Public SchoolsLong Branch Public SchoolsLong Branch Public Schools is a comprehensive community public school district that serves students in prekindergarten through twelfth grade in the city of Long Branch, in Monmouth County, New Jersey, United States...
(Long BranchLong Branch, New JerseyLong Branch is a city in Monmouth County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city population was 30,719.Long Branch was formed on April 11, 1867, as the Long Branch Commission, from portions of Ocean Township...
) - Millville Public SchoolsMillville Public SchoolsMillville Public Schools is a school district that serves the city of Millville, in Cumberland County, New Jersey, United States. The district is one of 31 Abbott Districts statewide....
(MillvilleMillville, New JerseyMillville is a city in Cumberland County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2000 United States Census, the city population was 26,847. Millville, Bridgeton and Vineland are the three principal New Jersey cities of the Vineland-Millville-Bridgeton Primary Metropolitan Statistical Area which...
) - Neptune Township SchoolsNeptune Township SchoolsThe Neptune Township Schools are a comprehensive community public school district that serves students in Pre-Kindergarten through twelfth grade from Neptune Township, in Monmouth County, New Jersey, United States...
(Neptune TownshipNeptune Township, New Jersey-Demographics:As of the census of 2000, there were 27,690 people, 10,907 households, and 6,805 families residing in the township. The population density was 3,366.8 people per square mile . There were 12,217 housing units at an average density of 1,485.4 per square mile...
) - New Brunswick Public SchoolsNew Brunswick Public SchoolsNew Brunswick Public Schools is a comprehensive community public school district that serves students in kindergarten through 12th grade in New Brunswick, in Middlesex County, New Jersey, United States...
(New BrunswickNew Brunswick, New JerseyNew Brunswick is a city in Middlesex County, New Jersey, USA. It is the county seat and the home of Rutgers University. The city is located on the Northeast Corridor rail line, southwest of Manhattan, on the southern bank of the Raritan River. At the 2010 United States Census, the population of...
) - Newark Public Schools (NewarkNewark, New JerseyNewark is the largest city in the American state of New Jersey, and the seat of Essex County. As of the 2010 United States Census, Newark had a population of 277,140, maintaining its status as the largest municipality in New Jersey. It is the 68th largest city in the U.S...
) - Orange Board of EducationOrange Board of EducationOrange Board of Education is a comprehensive community public school district that is headquartered in the city of Orange, New Jersey, United States, and serves students in prekindergarten through twelfth grade...
(OrangeOrange, New JerseyThe City of Orange is a city and township in Essex County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the township population was 30,134...
) - Passaic City School DistrictPassaic City School DistrictPassaic City School District is a compehensive community public school district located in Passaic, New Jersey, United States, serving students in prekindergarten through twelfth grade...
(PassaicPassaic, New JerseyPassaic is a city in Passaic County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city had a total population of 69,781, maintaining its status as the 15th largest municipality in New Jersey with an increase of 1,920 residents from the 2000 Census population of 67,861...
) - Paterson Public SchoolsPaterson Public SchoolsThe Paterson Public Schools is a comprehensive community public school district that serves students in prekindergarten through twelfth grade from Paterson, New Jersey, United States...
(PatersonPaterson, New JerseyPaterson is a city serving as the county seat of Passaic County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, its population was 146,199, rendering it New Jersey's third largest city and one of the largest cities in the New York City Metropolitan Area, despite a decrease of 3,023...
) - Pemberton Township School DistrictPemberton Township School DistrictPemberton Township School District is a comprehensive community public school district headquartered in Pemberton Township, New Jersey, United States, serving students in kindergarten through twelfth grade...
(Pemberton TownshipPemberton Township, New JerseyPemberton Township is a township in Burlington County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2000 United States Census, the township population was 28,691....
) - Perth Amboy Public SchoolsPerth Amboy Public SchoolsPerth Amboy Public Schools is a community public school district serving students in prekindergarten through twelfth grade, located in the city of Perth Amboy, in Middlesex County, New Jersey, United States...
(Perth AmboyPerth Amboy, New JerseyPerth Amboy is a city in Middlesex County, New Jersey, United States. The City of Perth Amboy is part of the New York metropolitan area. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city population was 50,814. Perth Amboy is known as the "City by the Bay", referring to Raritan Bay.-Name:The Lenape...
) - Phillipsburg School DistrictPhillipsburg School DistrictThe Phillipsburg School District is a comprehensive public school district in Phillipsburg, in Warren County, New Jersey, United States. The district serves students in Pre-Kindergarten through twelfth grade. The district has a population of 16,000 people and an area of on the Delaware River...
(K-12 from PhillipsburgPhillipsburg, New JerseyPhillipsburg, known locally as P'burg, is a town in Warren County, New Jersey, in the United States. As of 2010 United States Census, the town's population was 14,950....
, 9-12 from AlphaAlpha, New JerseyAlpha is a borough in Warren County, New Jersey, United States. As of the United States 2010 Census, the borough population was 2,369.Alpha was incorporated as a borough by an Act of the New Jersey Legislature and signed by Governor Woodrow Wilson on June 26, 1911, from portions of Pohatcong...
, BloomsburyBloomsbury, New JerseyBloomsbury is a Borough in Hunterdon County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the borough population was 870.Bloomsbury was incorporated as a borough by an Act of the New Jersey Legislature on March 30, 1905, from portions of Bethlehem Township.The Borough of...
(in Hunterdon CountyHunterdon County, New JerseyHunterdon County is a county located in the western section of the U.S. state of New Jersey. As of the 2010 United States Census, the population was 128,349. It is part of the New York Metropolitan Area. Its county seat is Flemington....
), Greenwich TownshipGreenwich Township, Warren County, New JerseyGreenwich Township is a Township in Warren County, New Jersey, United States. As of the United States 2010 Census, the township population was 5,712. The township is located in the far eastern region of the Lehigh Valley....
, Lopatcong TownshipLopatcong Township, New JerseyLopatcong Township is a Township in Warren County, New Jersey, United States. As of the United States 2010 Census, the township population was 8,014...
and Pohatcong TownshipPohatcong Township, New JerseyPohatcong Township is a Township in Warren County, New Jersey, United States, located in the easternmost region of the Lehigh Valley. As of the 2010 United States Census, the township's population was 3,339....
) - Plainfield Public School DistrictPlainfield Public School DistrictThe Plainfield Public School District is a comprehensive community public school district that serves students in prekindergarten through twelfth grade from Plainfield, in Union County, New Jersey, United States...
(PlainfieldPlainfield, New JerseyPlainfield is a city in Union County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city's population increased to a record high of 49,808....
) - Pleasantville Public SchoolsPleasantville Public SchoolsThe Pleasantville Public Schools are a comprehensive community public school district that serves students in Kindergarten through twelfth grade from the City of Pleasantville, in Atlantic County, New Jersey, United States...
(K-12 from PleasantvillePleasantville, New Jersey-Local government:Pleasantville operates under the City form of New Jersey municipal government, led by a Mayor and a seven-member City Council. The City Council consists of two members elected from wards to three-year terms, and five members elected at-large to four-year terms in office, all of...
, 9-12 from AbseconAbsecon, New JerseyAbsecon is a city in Atlantic County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city population was 8,411.What is now the City of Absecon was originally incorporated as a town by an Act of the New Jersey Legislature on February 29, 1872, from portions of Egg Harbor...
) - Salem City School District (Salem, New JerseySalem, New JerseySalem is a city in Salem County, New Jersey, United States. As of the United States 2010 Census, the city population was 5,146. It is the county seat of Salem County, the most rural county in the state of New Jersey. The name Salem is related to the Hebrew word shalom, meaning "peace".The town and...
) - Trenton Public SchoolsTrenton Public SchoolsThe Trenton Public Schools are a comprehensive community public school district, serving students in kindergarten through twelfth grade from Trenton, in Mercer County, New Jersey, United States. The district has twenty-one elementary schools, two middle schools and five high school programs...
(TrentonTrenton, New JerseyTrenton is the capital of the U.S. state of New Jersey and the county seat of Mercer County. As of the 2010 United States Census, Trenton had a population of 84,913...
) - Union City Board of EducationUnion City Board of EducationUnion City School District is a comprehensive community public school district that serves students in kindergarten through 12th grade in Union City, New Jersey, United States...
(Union CityUnion City, New JerseyUnion City is a city in Hudson County, New Jersey, United States. According to the 2010 United States Census the city had a total population of 66,455. All of the city is on land, an area of...
) - Vineland Public SchoolsVineland Public SchoolsVineland Public Schools is a comprehensive community public school district that serves the city of Vineland, New Jersey, United States. The district is one of 31 Abbott Districts statewide....
(VinelandVineland, New JerseyVineland is a city in Cumberland County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city had a total population of 60,724...
) - West New York School DistrictWest New York School DistrictWest New York School District is a public school district serving students in kindergarten through 12th grade in West New York, New Jersey, United States...
(West New YorkWest New York, New JerseyWest New York is a town in Hudson County, New Jersey, United States, situated upon the New Jersey Palisades. As of the 2010 United States Census, the town population was 49,708.-Geography:...
)
See also
- San Antonio Independent School District v. RodriguezSan Antonio Independent School District v. RodriguezSan Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez, 411 U.S. 1 , was a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States held that a school-financing system based on local property taxes was not an unconstitutional violation of the Fourteenth Amendment's equal protection clause...
, 411 U.S. 1 (1973), a U.S. Supreme CourtSupreme Court of the United StatesThe Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court in the United States. It has ultimate appellate jurisdiction over all state and federal courts, and original jurisdiction over a small range of cases...
case that held that a school-financing system based on local property taxes was not an unconstitutional violation of the Fourteenth AmendmentFourteenth Amendment to the United States ConstitutionThe Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was adopted on July 9, 1868, as one of the Reconstruction Amendments.Its Citizenship Clause provides a broad definition of citizenship that overruled the Dred Scott v...
's equal protection clause. - The Mount Laurel doctrineMount Laurel DoctrineThe Mount Laurel doctrine is a controversial judicial interpretation of the New Jersey State Constitution. The doctrine requires that municipalities use their zoning powers in an affirmative manner to provide a realistic opportunity for the production of housing affordable to low and moderate...
, a series of New Jersey Supreme Court cases requiring municipalities to provide affordable housingAffordable housingAffordable housing is a term used to describe dwelling units whose total housing costs are deemed "affordable" to those that have a median income. Although the term is often applied to rental housing that is within the financial means of those in the lower income ranges of a geographical area, the...
.