The
Okeechobee hurricane, or
Hurricane San Felipe Segundo, was a deadly
hurricaneA tropical cyclone is a storm system characterized by a large low-pressure center and numerous thunderstorms that produce strong winds and heavy rain. Tropical cyclones feed on heat released when moist air rises, resulting in condensation of water vapor contained in the moist air...
that struck the
Leeward IslandsThe Leeward Islands are the northern islands of the Lesser Antilles chain of islands, part of the West Indies. They are situated where the Caribbean Sea meets the western Atlantic Ocean...
,
Puerto RicoPuerto Rico , officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico , is a self-governing unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeastern Caribbean, east of the Dominican Republic and west of the Virgin Islands...
, the Bahamas, and
FloridaFlorida is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States, bordering Alabama to the northwest and Georgia to the north. It was the 27th state admitted to the United States...
in September of the
1928 Atlantic hurricane seasonThe 1928 Atlantic hurricane season ran through the summer and the first half of fall in 1928. The season was not active, but eventful. Six tropical cyclones formed during the season. Four of those became hurricanes. Only one became a major hurricane....
. It was the first recorded hurricane to reach Category 5 status on the
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane ScaleThe Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale is a classification used for most Western Hemisphere tropical cyclones that exceed the intensities of tropical depressions and tropical storms. The scale divides hurricanes into five categories distinguished by the intensities of their sustained winds...
in the
Atlantic basinAtlantic Basin may refer to:* Atlantic Ocean* Atlantic Basin in Brooklyn, site of:** Brooklyn Cruise Terminal** Atlantic Basin Iron Works...
; as of 2008, it remained the only recorded hurricane to strike Puerto Rico at Category 5 strength, and one of the ten most intense ever recorded to make landfall in the United States.
The hurricane caused devastation throughout its path. As many as 1,200 people were killed in
GuadeloupeGuadeloupe is an archipelago located in the eastern Caribbean Sea at , with a land area of 1,628 square kilometres . It is an overseas department of France. As with the other overseas departments, Guadeloupe is also one of the twenty-six regions of France and an integral part of the Republic...
. The storm directly struck Puerto Rico at peak strength, killing at least 300 and leaving hundreds of thousands homeless. In south Florida at least 2,500 were killed when a storm surge from
Lake OkeechobeeLake Okeechobee locally referred to as The Lake or The Big O, is a freshwater lake in the U.S. state of Florida. It is the second-largest freshwater lake wholly within the continental United States and the largest in the southern United States...
breached the dike surrounding the lake, flooding an area covering hundreds of square miles. In total, the hurricane killed at least 4,078 people and caused around $100 million ($1 billion 2008 US dollars) in damages over the course of its path.
Meteorological history
The storm was first observed 900 miles (1450 km) to the east of
GuadeloupeGuadeloupe is an archipelago located in the eastern Caribbean Sea at , with a land area of 1,628 square kilometres . It is an overseas department of France. As with the other overseas departments, Guadeloupe is also one of the twenty-six regions of France and an integral part of the Republic...
on September 10 by the
S.S. Commack. At the time, this was the most easterly report of a tropical cyclone ever received through ship's radio. A
Cape Verde-type hurricaneA Cape Verde-type hurricane is an Atlantic hurricane that develops near the Cape Verde islands, off the west coast of Africa. The average hurricane season has about two Cape Verde-type hurricanes, which are usually the most intense storms of the season because they often have plenty of warm open...
, hurricane analysis in the 1990s determined the storm likely formed four days prior between
Cape VerdeThe Republic of Cape Verde is an island country, spanning an archipelago located in the Macaronesia ecoregion of the North Atlantic Ocean, off the western coast of Africa, opposite Mauritania and Senegal....
and the coast of Africa.
As the storm neared the
CaribbeanThe Caribbean is a region consisting of the Caribbean Sea, its islands , and the surrounding coasts...
, it was already a
Category 3 hurricaneThe Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale is a classification used for most Western Hemisphere tropical cyclones that exceed the intensities of tropical depressions and tropical storms. The scale divides hurricanes into five categories distinguished by the intensities of their sustained winds...
. On September 12 it passed over
GuadeloupeGuadeloupe is an archipelago located in the eastern Caribbean Sea at , with a land area of 1,628 square kilometres . It is an overseas department of France. As with the other overseas departments, Guadeloupe is also one of the twenty-six regions of France and an integral part of the Republic...
and then south of the other
Leeward IslandsThe Leeward Islands are the northern islands of the Lesser Antilles chain of islands, part of the West Indies. They are situated where the Caribbean Sea meets the western Atlantic Ocean...
; Guadeloupe reported a pressure of 27.76 inHg (940 mbar), and a ship just south of St. Croix in the
United States Virgin IslandsThe United States Virgin Islands is a group of islands in the Caribbean that are an insular area of the United States. The islands are geographically part of the Virgin Islands archipelago and are located in the Leeward Islands of the Lesser Antilles.The U.S...
reported it as an even stronger storm with a pressure of 27.50 inHg (931 mbar). On the 13th the storm struck
Puerto RicoPuerto Rico , officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico , is a self-governing unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeastern Caribbean, east of the Dominican Republic and west of the Virgin Islands...
directly as a
Category 5The Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale is a classification used for most Western Hemisphere tropical cyclones that exceed the intensities of tropical depressions and tropical storms. The scale divides hurricanes into five categories distinguished by the intensities of their sustained winds...
hurricane, allegedly packing winds of 160
mphmph is a three-letter acronym that refers to miles per hour, a measurement of speedMPH may also refer to:* Master of Public Health, a Master's degree in public health...
(260 km/h); reliable reports from
San JuanSan Juan is the capital and largest municipality in Puerto Rico. As of the 2000 census, it has a population of 433,733, making it the 42nd-largest city under the jurisdiction of the United States. San Juan was founded by Spanish colonists in 1521, who called it Ciudad de Puerto Rico...
placed the wind speed at 125
knotsThe knot is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour, which is equal to exactly 1.852 km/h and approximately 1.151 mph. The abbreviation kn is preferred by American and Canadian maritime authorities, and by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers; however, the...
(145 mph, 230 km/h), and a report from
GuayamaGuayama is a municipality of Puerto Rico founded in January 29, 1736 and located on the Southern Coastal Valley region, bordering the Caribbean, south of Cayey; east of Salinas; and west of Patillas and Arroyo. Guayama is spread over 9 wards and Guayama Pueblo...
placed the pressure at 27.65 inHg (936 mbar). The 160 mph (260 km/h) wind measurement from Puerto Rico was taken by a cup
anemometerAn anemometer is a device that is used for measuring wind speed, and is one instrument used in a weather station. The term is derived from the Greek word anemos, meaning wind...
in
San JuanSan Juan is the capital and largest municipality in Puerto Rico. As of the 2000 census, it has a population of 433,733, making it the 42nd-largest city under the jurisdiction of the United States. San Juan was founded by Spanish colonists in 1521, who called it Ciudad de Puerto Rico...
, 30 miles (50 km) north of the storm's center, which measured 160 mph (260 km/h) sustained winds three hours before the peak wind speed was reached; however, the instrument was destroyed soon after and could not be calibrated. This unverified reading was the strongest wind measurement ever reported for an
Atlantic hurricaneNorth Atlantic tropical cyclones usually form in summer or fall. Tropical cyclones can be broken down by intensity. Tropical storms have one-minute maximum sustained winds of at least 39 mph , while hurricanes have one-minute maximum sustained exceeding 74 mph...
up until that time; not until
Hurricane DogHurricane Dog was the most intense hurricane of the 1950 Atlantic hurricane season. The fourth named storm of the season, Dog developed on August 30 to the east of Antigua; after passing through the northern Lesser Antilles, it turned to the north and intensified into a Category 5 hurricane...
of 1950 were stronger winds officially measured in an Atlantic storm, although some unmeasured storms like the
1935 Labor Day HurricaneThe 1935 Labor Day hurricane was the strongest tropical cyclone during the 1935 Atlantic hurricane season and the most intense landfalling U.S. hurricanes in recorded American History...
may have been stronger. Because of this measurement, the Okeechobee storm was the first hurricane, in the
Atlantic basinAtlantic Basin may refer to:* Atlantic Ocean* Atlantic Basin in Brooklyn, site of:** Brooklyn Cruise Terminal** Atlantic Basin Iron Works...
known to have reached Category 5 intensity, although in 2009, it was found that the 1924 Cuba Hurricane had reached Category 5 as well; although it is virtually certain that earlier hurricanes had achieved this strength (a likely candidate is the
Great Havana Hurricane of 1846The Great Havana Hurricane of 1846 was a powerful late season hurricane that caused extensive damage and up to 255 deaths as it moved across Cuba, Florida, and the eastern United States before dissipating over the Canadian Maritimes.-Meteorological history:...
), none had ever had their winds or pressure recorded properly.
The hurricane was also extremely large as it crossed Puerto Rico. Hurricane-force winds were measured in
GuayamaGuayama is a municipality of Puerto Rico founded in January 29, 1736 and located on the Southern Coastal Valley region, bordering the Caribbean, south of Cayey; east of Salinas; and west of Patillas and Arroyo. Guayama is spread over 9 wards and Guayama Pueblo...
for 18 hours; since the storm is estimated to have been moving at 13 mph (21 km/h), the diameter of the storm's hurricane winds was estimated very roughly to be 234 miles (376 km). After leaving the Caribbean, the hurricane moved across the Bahamas as a strong
Category 4 hurricaneThe Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale is a classification used for most Western Hemisphere tropical cyclones that exceed the intensities of tropical depressions and tropical storms. The scale divides hurricanes into five categories distinguished by the intensities of their sustained winds...
. It continued to the west-northwest, and made landfall in southern
FloridaFlorida is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States, bordering Alabama to the northwest and Georgia to the north. It was the 27th state admitted to the United States...
on the evening of September 16 (or early on September 17
Universal TimeUniversal Time is a timescale based on the rotation of the Earth. It is a modern continuation of Greenwich Mean Time , i.e., the mean solar time on the meridian of Greenwich, and GMT is sometimes used loosely as a synonym for UTC. In fact the expression "Universal Time" is ambiguous, as there are...
). Initially, Richard Gray of the U.S. Weather Bureau was optimistic that the storm would spare the south Florida region. Atmospheric pressure at landfall was measured at 929 mbar (hPa), and maximum sustained winds were near 150 mph (240 km/h). The eye passed ashore in
Palm Beach CountyPalm Beach County is the largest county in the state of Florida in area. As of 2007, the rapidly-growing county's estimated population was 1,351,236, making it the third most populous in the state and the twenty ninth most populous in the United States...
near
West Palm BeachWest Palm Beach, also known as West Palm, is the most populous city in Palm Beach County, Florida, United States. The city is also the oldest incorporated municipality in South Florida. West Palm's economy is currently ranked #4 in the Milken Institute Best Performing 296 U.S. Cities index...
, then moved directly over
Lake OkeechobeeLake Okeechobee locally referred to as The Lake or The Big O, is a freshwater lake in the U.S. state of Florida. It is the second-largest freshwater lake wholly within the continental United States and the largest in the southern United States...
. Peak gusts were estimated near 160 mph (260 km/h) at
Canal Point, FloridaThe unincorporated community of Canal Point is a census-designated place in Palm Beach County, Florida, United States. The population was 525 at the 2000 census.-Geography:Canal Point is located at ....
. The hurricane's path turned northeast as it crossed Florida, taking it across northern Florida, eastern
GeorgiaGeorgia is a state in the United States. One of the original Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution, it had been the last of the Thirteen Colonies to be established, in 1733. Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January...
, and the Carolinas on September 19. It then moved inland and merged with a low-pressure system around Toronto on the 20th.
Impact
| Storm Deaths by Region |
| Region |
Deaths |
Locale |
Deaths |
| Caribbean The Caribbean is a region consisting of the Caribbean Sea, its islands , and the surrounding coasts...
and Bahamas |
1575 |
MartiniqueMartinique is an island in the eastern Caribbean Sea, with a land area of . It is an overseas department of France. To the northwest lies Dominica, to the south St Lucia, and to the southeast Barbados. As with the other overseas departments, Martinique is also one of the twenty-six regions of...
|
3 |
GuadeloupeGuadeloupe is an archipelago located in the eastern Caribbean Sea at , with a land area of 1,628 square kilometres . It is an overseas department of France. As with the other overseas departments, Guadeloupe is also one of the twenty-six regions of France and an integral part of the Republic...
|
600–1200 |
MontserratMontserrat is a British overseas territory located in the Leeward Islands, part of the chain of islands called the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean Sea. It measures approximately 16 km long and 11 km wide, giving of coastline...
|
42 |
NevisNevis is an island in the Caribbean Sea, located near the northern end of the Lesser Antilles archipelago, about 220 miles southeast of Puerto Rico and fifty miles west of Antigua. The 36-square-mile island is part of the inner arc of the Leeward Islands chain of the West Indies...
|
3 |
Puerto RicoPuerto Rico , officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico , is a self-governing unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeastern Caribbean, east of the Dominican Republic and west of the Virgin Islands...
|
312 |
| Bahamas |
18 |
| United States |
2500+ |
FloridaFlorida is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States, bordering Alabama to the northwest and Georgia to the north. It was the 27th state admitted to the United States...
|
2500+ |
| Total |
4078+ |
Leeward Islands
The hurricane moved directly over the
Leeward IslandsThe Leeward Islands are the northern islands of the Lesser Antilles chain of islands, part of the West Indies. They are situated where the Caribbean Sea meets the western Atlantic Ocean...
in the
CaribbeanThe Caribbean is a region consisting of the Caribbean Sea, its islands , and the surrounding coasts...
, strengthening as it did so. On the island of
DominicaDominica, officially the Commonwealth of Dominica, is an island nation in the Caribbean Sea. To the north-northwest lies Guadeloupe, to the southeast Martinique. Its size is and the highest point in the country is Morne Diablotins, which has an elevation of . The Commonwealth of Dominica has an...
winds were clocked at 24 mph (39 km/h); there were no reports of damages. In
MartiniqueMartinique is an island in the eastern Caribbean Sea, with a land area of . It is an overseas department of France. To the northwest lies Dominica, to the south St Lucia, and to the southeast Barbados. As with the other overseas departments, Martinique is also one of the twenty-six regions of...
, even further south of the storm's path, there were three fatalities.
GuadeloupeGuadeloupe is an archipelago located in the eastern Caribbean Sea at , with a land area of 1,628 square kilometres . It is an overseas department of France. As with the other overseas departments, Guadeloupe is also one of the twenty-six regions of France and an integral part of the Republic...
received a near-direct hit from the storm, apparently with little warning; the death toll there was 600–1200, and damage reports relayed through Paris indicated "great destruction" on the island.
MontserratMontserrat is a British overseas territory located in the Leeward Islands, part of the chain of islands called the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean Sea. It measures approximately 16 km long and 11 km wide, giving of coastline...
, just north of the storm's center, was warned in advance of the storm but still suffered £150,000 (1928
UKPUKP may refer to:* Ukrainian Communist Party* Pound sterling, but the actual ISO 4217 code is GBP* The Unbounded Knapsack problem....
) in damages and 42 deaths;
PlymouthPlymouth was the capital as well as the only port of entry to Montserrat, an overseas territory of the United Kingdom located in the Caribbean Sea....
and Salem were devastated and crop losses caused near-starvation conditions before relief could arrive. The storm passed to the south of the islands of St. Kitts and St. Croix, which suffered heavy damages to property and crops but no reported fatalities.
NevisNevis is an island in the Caribbean Sea, located near the northern end of the Lesser Antilles archipelago, about 220 miles southeast of Puerto Rico and fifty miles west of Antigua. The 36-square-mile island is part of the inner arc of the Leeward Islands chain of the West Indies...
did report three deaths due to the storm, though. Damage reports from elsewhere in the Leeward Islands are not available.
Puerto Rico
The island of
Puerto RicoPuerto Rico , officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico , is a self-governing unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeastern Caribbean, east of the Dominican Republic and west of the Virgin Islands...
received the worst of the storm's winds when the hurricane moved directly across the island at
Category 5The Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale is a classification used for most Western Hemisphere tropical cyclones that exceed the intensities of tropical depressions and tropical storms. The scale divides hurricanes into five categories distinguished by the intensities of their sustained winds...
strength. The island knew of the storm's approach well ahead of time; by about 36 hours in advance all police districts were warned and radio broadcasts provided constant warnings to ships. Effective preparation is credited for the relatively low death toll of 312, and not a single ship was lost at sea in the vicinity of Puerto Rico. By comparison, the weaker
1899 Hurricane San Ciriaco1899 Hurricane San Ciriaco, also known as the 1899 Puerto Rico Hurricane, was the longest-lived Atlantic hurricane and the tenth deadliest tropical cyclone in the basin. It was an intense and long-lived Atlantic Cape Verde-type hurricane which crossed Puerto Rico over the two day period August 8 to...
killed approximately 3,000 people.
However, property damage on the island from winds and rain was catastrophic. The northeast portion of the island received winds in excess of Category 3 strength, with hurricane-force winds lasting as long as 18 hours. At least 10 inches (250 mm) of rain fell over the island, with greater amounts of nearly 30 inches (750 mm) received in some areas. Official reports stated "several hundred thousand" people were left homeless, and property damages were estimated at $50 million ($500 million in 2008 US dollars).
The storm is remembered in Puerto Rico (and Latin America) as the
San Felipe Hurricane because the eye of the cyclone made landfall on the
ChristianA Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic, religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, who Christians believe was the Messiah prophesied in the Old Testament/Hebrew Bible, and the Son of God.The term "Christian" is also used adjectivally to...
feast day of
Saint PhilipSaint Philip, São Filipe, or San Felipe may refer to:People* Saint Philip the Apostle* Saint Philip the Evangelist also known as Philip the Deacon* Saint Philip Neri* Saint Philip Minh Van Doan of the Vietnamese Martyrs...
; the
Latin AmericaLatin America is a region of the Americas where Romance languages – particularly Spanish, Portuguese, and variably French – are primarily spoken. Latin America has an area of approximately 21,069,501 km² , almost 3.9% of the Earth's surface or 14.1% of its land surface area...
n custom, since the Spanish colonial era began in 1492, was to name hurricanes upon their arrival after Catholic religious feast days. It was named "Segundo", Spanish for "the Second", because of another destructive "Hurricane San Felipe" which struck Puerto Rico on that same day 52 years earlier.
Bahamas
The eye of the hurricane passed just south of
Grand BahamaGrand Bahama is one of the northernmost of the islands of the Bahamas, and the closest major island to the United States, lying just 55 mi off the state of Florida. Grand Bahama is the fourth largest island in the Bahamas island chain of approximately 700 islands and cays...
as a strong
Category 4 hurricaneThe Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale is a classification used for most Western Hemisphere tropical cyclones that exceed the intensities of tropical depressions and tropical storms. The scale divides hurricanes into five categories distinguished by the intensities of their sustained winds...
, again causing very heavy damage. According to a firsthand account from the island, it was the worst storm in memory to strike the area. As in Puerto Rico, however, authorities in the Bahamas were aware of the hurricane's passage well ahead of time, and preparations minimized the loss of life in the islands. The only report of fatalities was from a
sloopA sloop is a sailboat with a fore-and-aft rig and a single mast farther forward than the mast of a cutter. A sloop's fore-triangle is smaller than a cutter's, and unlike a cutter, a sloop usually bends only one headsail, though this distinction is not definitive; some sloops such as the...
lost at sea in the vicinity of Ambergris Cay with 18 on board.
South Florida
Coastal damage in Florida near the point of landfall was catastrophic.
MiamiMiami is a major coastal city in southeastern Florida, in the United States. Miami is the county seat of Miami-Dade County, the most populous county in Florida. With an estimated population of 424,662 in 2007, Miami is the largest city within the Miami metropolitan area, which is the...
, well south of the point of landfall, escaped with very little damage;
HollywoodHollywood is a city in Broward County, Florida, United States. As of July 1 2008, the population estimated by the U.S. Census Bureau is 141,740. Founded in 1925, the city grew rapidly in the 1950s and 1960s, and is now the twelfth largest city in Florida...
and
Fort LauderdaleFort Lauderdale is a city in the U.S. state of Florida, along the Atlantic Ocean. It is the county seat of Broward County. According to 2007 U.S. Census Bureau estimates, the city had a population of 183,606...
suffered only slight damages. In Fort Lauderdale, numerous power lines and telephone wires were downed. Northward, from
Pompano BeachPompano Beach is a city in Broward County, Florida, along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean just to the north of Fort Lauderdale. The Nearby Hillsboro Inlet forms part of the Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway. As of 2007, the U.S. Census Bureau estimated the city's population was 102,745. It is part of...
to
JupiterJupiter is a town located in Palm Beach County, Florida. As of the 2000 census, the town had a total population of 39,328. As of 2006, the population had grown to 50,028, according to the University of Florida, Bureau of Economic and Business Research. Jupiter is well known for its beauty and...
, buildings suffered serious damage from the heavy winds and 10 ft (3 m) storm surge, which was heaviest in the vicinity of
Palm BeachThe Town of Palm Beach is an affluent incorporated town in Palm Beach County, Florida, United States. The Intracoastal Waterway separates it from the neighboring cities of West Palm Beach and Lake Worth...
; total coastal damages were estimated as "several million" dollars. In West Palm Beach, more than 1,711 homes were destroyed, while the
Jupiter Inlet LightThe Jupiter Inlet Light is located in Jupiter, Florida, on the north side of the Jupiter Inlet. The site for the lighthouse was chosen in 1853. It is located between Cape Canaveral Light and Hillsboro Inlet Light. The lighthouse was designed by then Lieutenant George G. Meade of the Bureau of...
house's mortar was reportedly "squeezed ...like toothpaste" between the bricks during the storm, swaying the tower seventeen inches off the base. Because of well-issued hurricane warnings, residents were prepared for the storm, and the number of lives lost in the coastal Palm Beach area was only 26.
Inland, the hurricane wreaked much more widespread destruction along the more heavily populated coast of
Lake OkeechobeeLake Okeechobee locally referred to as The Lake or The Big O, is a freshwater lake in the U.S. state of Florida. It is the second-largest freshwater lake wholly within the continental United States and the largest in the southern United States...
. Residents had been warned to evacuate the low ground earlier in the day, but after the hurricane did not arrive on schedule, many thought it had missed and returned to their homes. When the worst of the storm crossed the lake—with winds measured on the ground at around 140
mphmph is a three-letter acronym that refers to miles per hour, a measurement of speedMPH may also refer to:* Master of Public Health, a Master's degree in public health...
(225 km/h)—the south-blowing wind caused a
storm surgeStorm surge is an offshore rise of water associated with a low pressure weather system, typically a tropical cyclone. Storm surge is caused primarily by high winds pushing on the ocean's surface. The wind causes the water to pile up higher than the ordinary sea level...
to overflow the small dike that had been built at the south end of the lake. The resulting flood covered an area of hundreds of square miles with water that in some places was over 20 ft (6 m) deep. Houses were floated off of their foundations and dashed to pieces against any obstacle they encountered. Most survivors and bodies were washed out into the
EvergladesThe Everglades are subtropical wetlands located in the southern portion of the U.S. state of Florida, comprising the southern half of a large watershed. The system begins near Orlando with the Kissimmee River, which discharges into the vast but shallow Lake Okeechobee...
where many of the bodies were never found. As the rear eyewall passed over the area, the flood reversed itself, breaking the dikes along the northern coast of the lake and causing a similar but smaller flood.
Floodwaters persisted for several weeks, greatly impeding attempts to clean up the devastation. Burial services were quickly overwhelmed, and many of the bodies were placed into mass graves. Around 75% of the fatalities were migrant farm workers, making identification of both dead and missing bodies very difficult; as a result of this, the count of the dead is not very accurate. The Red Cross estimated the number of fatalities as 1,836, which was taken as the official count by the
National Weather ServiceThe National Weather Service , once known as the Weather Bureau, is one of the six scientific agencies that make up the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of the United States government...
for many years (and exactly equal to the official count for
Hurricane KatrinaHurricane Katrina of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season was the costliest hurricane, as well as one of the five deadliest, in the history of the United States...
). Older sources usually list 3,411 as the hurricane's total count of fatalities, including the Caribbean. However, in 2003 the U.S. death count was revised as "at least" 2,500, making the Okeechobee hurricane the second-deadliest natural disaster in United States history behind the
Galveston Hurricane of 1900The Hurricane of 1900 made landfall on the city of Galveston, Texas, on September 8, 1900.It had estimated winds of at landfall, making it a Category 4 storm on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale....
. A mass grave at the Port Mayaca Cemetery east of
Port MayacaPort Mayaca is a sparsely populated place located in western Martin County, Florida, United States. It is on the eastern side of Lake Okeechobee. Named for the Mayaca Tribe, Port Mayaca is centered just south of the Port Mayaca Locks on the Okeechobee Waterway at the intersection of S.W. Kanner...
contains the bodies of 1,600 victims of the hurricane.
Thousands of people were left homeless in Florida; property damage was estimated at $25 million ($250 million in 2008 US dollars). It is estimated if a similar storm were to strike as of the year 2003, it would cause $18.7 billion in damages. The cyclone remains one of three Atlantic hurricanes to strike the southern mainland of Florida with a central pressure below 940 mbar (27.76 inHg), the others being the
1926 Miami hurricaneThe 1926 Miami Hurricane was an intense hurricane that devastated Miami, Florida in September 1926. The storm also caused significant damage in the Florida Panhandle, the U.S. state of Alabama, and the Bahamas...
and
Hurricane AndrewHurricane Andrew was the last and third most powerful of three Category 5 hurricanes to make landfall in the United States during the 20th century, after the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935 and Hurricane Camille in 1969. Andrew caused 65 deaths....
of
1992The 1992 Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1, 1992, and lasted until November 30, 1992. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin...
.
Elsewhere
Limited damage reports are available for the United States outside of southern Florida. The storm caused flooding in
North CarolinaNorth Carolina is a state located on the Atlantic Seaboard in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties...
and brought near-hurricane-force winds and a 7 foot (2.1 m) storm surge to the
NorfolkNorfolk is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States. With a population of 234,403 as of the 2000 census, it is Virginia's second-largest incorporated city behind its eastern neighbor, Virginia Beach....
area. Nonetheless, most sources agree that the hurricane caused only minimal damage in these areas.
Racial issues
In
FloridaFlorida is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States, bordering Alabama to the northwest and Georgia to the north. It was the 27th state admitted to the United States...
, although the hurricane destroyed everything in its path with impartiality, the death toll was by far highest in the economically poor areas in the low-lying ground right around
Lake OkeechobeeLake Okeechobee locally referred to as The Lake or The Big O, is a freshwater lake in the U.S. state of Florida. It is the second-largest freshwater lake wholly within the continental United States and the largest in the southern United States...
. Around 75% of the fatalities were from migrant farm workers, most of whom were black. Black workers did most of the cleanup, and the few caskets available for burials were mostly used for the bodies of whites; other bodies were either burned or buried in mass graves. Burials were segregated, and the only mass gravesite to receive a memorial contained only white bodies. The inequity has caused ongoing racial friction that still exists. The effects of the hurricane on black migrant workers is dramatized in
Zora Neale HurstonZora Neale Hurston was an American folklorist and author during the time of the Harlem Renaissance. Of Hurston's four novels and more than 50 published short stories, plays, and essays, she is best known for her 1937 novel Their Eyes Were Watching God.-Early life:Hurston was the fifth of eight...
's novel
Their Eyes Were Watching GodTheir Eyes Were Watching God is a 1937 novel and the best-known work by African American writer Zora Neale Hurston. Set in central and southern Florida in the early 20th century, the novel garnered attention and controversy at the time of its publication, and has come to be regarded as a seminal...
.
Improved building codes
In the aftermath of the hurricane in coastal Florida, it became apparent that well-constructed buildings with shutters had suffered practically no damage from winds that caused serious structural problems to lesser buildings. Buildings with well-constructed frames, and those made of steel, concrete, brick, or stone were largely immune to winds, and the use of shutters prevented damage to windows and the interior of the buildings. Coming on the heels of the
1926 Miami hurricaneThe 1926 Miami Hurricane was an intense hurricane that devastated Miami, Florida in September 1926. The storm also caused significant damage in the Florida Panhandle, the U.S. state of Alabama, and the Bahamas...
where a similar pattern had been noticed, one lasting result of the 1928 storm was improved building codes.
Flood control
To prevent a recurrence of disasters like this one and the
Great Miami HurricaneThe 1926 Miami Hurricane was an intense hurricane that devastated Miami, Florida in September 1926. The storm also caused significant damage in the Florida Panhandle, the U.S. state of Alabama, and the Bahamas...
of 1926, the Florida State Legislature created the Okeechobee Flood Control District, which was authorized to cooperate with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in flood control undertakings. After a personal inspection of the area by President
Herbert HooverHerbert Clark Hoover was the 31st President of the United States . Hoover was a professional mining engineer and author. As the United States Secretary of Commerce in the 1920s under Presidents Warren Harding and Calvin Coolidge, he promoted government intervention under the rubric "economic...
, the Corps drafted a new plan which provided for the construction of floodway channels, control gates, and major levees along Lake Okeechobee's shores. A long term system was designed for the purpose of flood control, water conservation, prevention of saltwater intrusion, and preservation of fish and wildlife populations. One of the solutions was the construction of the
Herbert Hoover DikeThe Herbert Hoover Dike is a dike around the waters of Lake Okeechobee in Florida.Over the years, the quality of the flood control around the lake has grown. In the 1910s, a small earthen dike was constructed. This containment was breached by the storm surge from the Great Miami Hurricane in 1926...
. Today, concerns related to the dike's stability have grown in response to studies indicating long term problems with "piping" and
erosionErosion is a gravity driven process that moves solids in the natural environment or their source and deposits them elsewhere...
. Leaks have been reported after several heavy rain events. Proposed solutions to the dike's problems have included the construction of a
seepageSoil mechanics is a discipline that applies principles of engineering mechanics, e.g. kinematics, dynamics, fluid mechanics, and mechanics of material, to predict the mechanical behavior of soils. Together with Rock mechanics, it is the basis for solving many engineering problems in civil...
bermA berm is a level space, shelf, or raised barrier separating two areas. Berm is a loanword from Dutch.-History:In medieval military engineering, a berm was a level space between a parapet or defensive wall and an adjacent steep-walled ditch or moat. It was intended to reduce soil pressure on the...
on the landward side of the dike, with the first stage costing approximately $67 million (
USDThe United States dollar is the unit of currency of the United States. The U.S. dollar is normally abbreviated as the dollar sign, $, or as USD or US$ to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies and from others that use the $ symbol. It is divided into 100 cents .The U.S...
).
See also
- Port Mayaca Mass Burial Site of 1,600 Victims
Port Mayaca is a sparsely populated place located in western Martin County, Florida, United States. It is on the eastern side of Lake Okeechobee. Named for the Mayaca Tribe, Port Mayaca is centered just south of the Port Mayaca Locks on the Okeechobee Waterway at the intersection of S.W. Kanner...
- Hurricane of 1928 African American Mass Burial Site
The Hurricane of 1928 African American Mass Burial Site is a historic site in West Palm Beach, Florida. It is located near the junction of 25th Street and Tamarind Avenue, between I-95 and US 1. On September 12, 2002, it was added to the U.S...
- List of Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes
- List of Atlantic hurricanes
- List of Florida hurricanes
- Eliot Kleinberg
Eliot Kleinberg is an author and a news and features writer for the Palm Beach Post in Palm Beach County, Florida United States....
– author of Black Cloud: The Great Florida Storm of 1928
- Jay Barnes – author of Florida's Hurricane History
External links